Jebel Akhdar War
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What was the Jebel Akhdar War?
The Jebel Akhdar War was a series of mid- to late-1950s conflicts in Oman between interior residents, supported by Saudi Arabia and Egypt, and the Sultan of Muscat and Oman, aided by Britain. Rebels sought independence and control of interior lands and oil.
Oman was divided between the coast, ruled by a Sultan in Muscat, and the interior, loyal to an elected Imam. The 1920 Agreement of Al-Sîb granted autonomy to the Omani interior under its Imam, though the Sultan was sovereign. After the Sultan granted an oil concession in the part of Oman under the Imam’s control, the Imam declared independence. The Sultan, supported by British forces, invaded the Omani interior. In 1957, the Imam's brother returned to Oman with a military force, declaring the Imamate restored. The Sultan requested assistance from the British, who ultimately helped him regain control of the Omani interior in 1959.
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Where did the Jebel Akhdar War take place?
The Jebel Akhdar War took place in the interior of Oman during the mid- and late 1950s. The war was between residents of the interior of Oman, supported by Saudi Arabia and Egypt, and the sultan of Muscat and Oman, who was aided by Britain. In 1959, two British Special Air Service (SAS) squadrons scaled the Jebel Akhdar and ended the rebellion, allowing the sultan of Muscat and Oman to resume control of the Omani interior.
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Who were the main groups or countries involved in the conflict?
The Jebel Akhdar War involved multiple groups and countries. On one side were residents of the interior of Oman, supported by Saudi Arabia and Egypt, seeking independence and control of oil-rich lands. On the other side was the sultan of Muscat and Oman, who was aided by Britain. The conflict arose from historical divisions between the coast, ruled by the sultan, and the interior, loyal to an elected imam, exacerbated by oil discoveries and disputes over autonomy.
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Why did the Jebel Akhdar War begin?
The Jebel Akhdar War began due to tensions between the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman and the interior of Oman, where people were loyal to an elected imam. The 1920 Agreement of Al-Sib secured autonomy for the interior under its imam, but the situation changed in the late 1940s with the discovery of potential oil reserves near the Buraimi Oasis.
After the sultan granted an oil concession in the part of Oman under the imam’s control, the new imam, Ghālib, declared Oman independent of Muscat. The sultan, supported by British forces, then invaded the Omani interior, nullified the Agreement of Al-Sib, and abolished the office of imam, leading to further conflict and the eventual Jebel Akhdar War.
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How was the war fought, and what strategies were used?
The Jebel Akhdar War involved a series of mid- to late-1950s conflicts between the Sultan of Muscat and Oman, supported by Britain, and interior Oman residents, backed by Saudi Arabia and Egypt. The Oman interior sought independence and control of interior lands and oil.
After the Sultan nullified the Agreement of Al-Sib and abolished the office of Imam, rebels regrouped and routed the Sultan’s forces. The Sultan then requested assistance from the British, who responded with infantry and air force bombers. After little success through most of 1958, in 1959, two British Special Air Service (SAS) squadrons scaled the Jebel Akhdar and ended the rebellion.
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What were the results and long-term effects of the Jebel Akhdar War on Oman and the region?
The Jebel Akhdar War in the 1950s was rooted in Oman's division between the coast, ruled by the Sultan in Muscat, and the interior, loyal to an elected Imam. The conflict was triggered by oil interests and a declaration of independence by the Imamate after the Sultan granted an oil concession.
Supported by British forces, the Sultan of Muscat and Oman regained control of the Omani interior by 1959. Although the Sultan resumed control, the Jebel Akhdar War had long-term effects, leading to the abolishment of the Agreement of Al-Sîb and the office of Imam.
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Jebel Akhdar War, a series of conflicts during the mid- and late 1950s between residents of the interior of Oman, supported by Saudi Arabia and Egypt, and the sultan of Muscat and Oman, who was aided by Britain. The rebels sought independence and control of the interior lands and any oil to be found therein.
Oman was historically divided between the coastal area, ruled by a sultan in Muscat, and the interior, where the people were loyal to an elected imam. Under the terms of the 1920 Agreement of Al-Sīb, the sultan was sovereign over all of Muscat and Oman, but the Omani interior enjoyed autonomy under its imam. Muscat and Oman remained peaceful until the late 1940s, when the oil company Aramco found what it thought was evidence of oil near the Buraimi Oasis, on the border between Oman and the Trucial States (now the United Arab Emirates). Saudi Arabia claimed the area. In 1952 Sultan Saʿīd ibn Taymūr of Muscat and Oman made common cause with Muḥammad al-Khalīlī, the Omani imam, to unite their forces in order to expel Saudi Arabia from the Omani portion of the oasis. However, the British government persuaded the sultan to stand down in light of an agreement between Britain and Saudi Arabia.
In 1954 Muḥammad al-Khalīlī died and was succeeded by Ghālib. After the sultan granted an oil concession in the part of Oman that was under the imam’s control, Ghālib declared Oman to be independent of Muscat. The sultan responded by invading the Omani interior, with the support of British forces, and, after gaining control of the major towns, he declared the Agreement of Al-Sīb to be nullified and the office of imam abolished. Ghālib abdicated and retired to his home village, but his brother Ṭālib went first to Saudi Arabia and then to Egypt to gather support for Omani independence. In addition, he collected and trained an Omani military force. In 1957 Ṭālib returned to Oman with some 200 men and declared the imamate restored. Ghālib again assumed the title of imam. The sultan sent his forces to Ṭālib’s stronghold, and a seven-day battle ensued. The tribal leader Sulaymān ibn Ḥimyār later joined the rebellion, bringing with him all those who lived in the vicinity of the Jebel Akhdar mountains, and the rebels were then able to rout the sultan’s forces.
The sultan, believing that his forces would be unable to defeat the rebels, requested assistance from the British, who responded with infantry and air force bombers. The rebels were soon compelled to retreat into the Jebel Akhdar, where they made a new stronghold. Through most of 1958, British Royal Air Force (RAF) bombers attacked the rebels by air, to little avail, while the rebels were able to gain supplies and weaponry from Saudi Arabia. Blockades and attempts by ground forces to reach and dislodge the rebels were likewise ineffective. At last, in 1959, two British Special Air Service (SAS) squadrons were able to scale the Jebel Akhdar and end the rebellion. The sultan of Muscat and Oman resumed control of the Omani interior.