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How did the Treaty of Paris lead to the Philippine-American War?

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Theodore Roosevelt and the Rough Riders — Spanish-American War Theodore Roosevelt leading the Rough Riders during the Spanish-American War, 1898; print created by Kurz & Allison.

The Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10, 1898, served as the primary catalyst for the Philippine-American War by transferring sovereignty of the Philippines from Spain to the United States.123

This transfer directly conflicted with the aspirations of Filipino revolutionaries, who had already declared independence on June 12, 1898, and established a provisional government under Emilio Aguinaldo. While Filipino forces controlled most of the archipelago, the United States refused to recognize this independence, viewing the islands as a U.S. possession under the terms of the treaty.423

Because the leaders of the nascent Philippine Republic did not accept U.S. sovereignty and the United States rejected Filipino claims to self-rule, armed conflict became inevitable. Tensions escalated until hostilities erupted on the outskirts of Manila on February 4, 1899—just two days before the U.S. Senate officially ratified the treaty. This clash marked the beginning of a three-year war, as the United States sought to establish control over the territory while Filipinos fought to maintain their sovereignty.2314