Bernstein v. the U.S. Department of State

Bernstein v. the U.S. Department of State, landmark legal decision (1996) that set two important precedents in the field of digital technology. First, it ruled that U.S. government regulations that barred the export of encryption software were unconstitutionally restrictive; second, it declared that software source code can be a form of protected free speech.

In the lawsuit a federal court was asked to rule in a dispute between the U.S. government and Daniel Bernstein, a mathematics professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, to determine if he had the right to distribute encryption software of his own creation over the Internet. Bernstein had devised his encryption program, called Snuffle, in 1990 while he was a Ph.D. candidate at the University of California, Berkeley. His software converted a one-way “hash function” (one that takes an input string of arbitrary length and compresses it into a finite, usually shorter, string; the function has many uses in cryptography) into a private-key encryption system (one that can be decoded only by whoever holds the private “key,” or pass code). The functionality of the software depended on two people’s having exchanged their private keys.

Bernstein used Snuffle while teaching a course on cryptography to convey his ideas about encryption. He made the software source code available free on the Web site where he placed course-review materials for his classes. Wanting to disburse the material farther to the academic and scientific communities, in the mid-1990s Bernstein asked the U.S. State Department if he would need a license to publish Snuffle. He was told that his creation was tantamount to “munitions” under International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR). Therefore, the government contended, Bernstein would have to obtain export licenses from the State Department for each person outside the United States who wanted to view Snuffle’s online source code.

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In February 1995, with the help of a legal team from the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Bernstein sued the government, claiming that the regulations were unconstitutional and that his First Amendment rights should permit him the freedom to distribute the material as he wished. Ninth Circuit District Court Judge Marilyn Hall Patel ruled in the instructor’s favour in 1996, citing First Amendment grounds to declare that free-speech rights protected the software’s source code.

In late 1996 U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton shifted oversight and licensing authority over nonmilitary encryption products to the Commerce Department. Under the new federal Export Administration Regulations (EAR), which were intended to keep encryption technology out of the hands of rogue states, Bernstein was proscribed from freely distributing the code, even if it was his own invention. After the change in oversight Bernstein amended his suit to include the Commerce Department. In August 1997 Patel issued another ruling, identical to her first, reasserting First Amendment protections of encryption source code regardless of which federal agency was in charge of the government’s encryption policy.

The U.S. government appealed those decisions, and in May 1999 a three-judge Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals panel voted 2–1 to uphold Patel’s decision. The judges asserted that the government’s export rules operated as a kind of prepublication licensing scheme that obstructed the professor’s rights to scientific expression. It also ruled that the EAR gave government officials “boundless discretion” over encryption matters and that the regulations lacked adequate checks and balances. The panel, with one dissenter, noted that Bernstein’s Snuffle software was, in part, a “form of political expression.”

One State Department official cited in the Bernstein appeals court ruling said that the proliferation of software like Snuffle would make it easier for foreign intelligence sources to keep vital national-security information out of U.S. hands. Encryption software, the official argued, could be used to conceal foreign military communications or communications between terrorists, drug smugglers, and hackers intent on taking action against U.S. interests. Although Snuffle was not designed for those uses, it could have such applications, according to the government.

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The Ninth Circuit Appeals Court did not entirely reject the government’s argument, but it did rule that cryptographers use source code to express scientific ideas “in much the same way that mathematicians use equations or economists use graphs.” Therefore, encryption source code was “expressive” and was protected under the First Amendment. However, the court cautioned that not all software could be considered expressive, and thus not all source code would necessarily be protected.

After the appeals court’s 1999 decision, the government requested and was granted a review of the case with a full panel of 11 judges rather than the original 3, causing the original ruling to be withdrawn. Before the review could occur, however, the government relaxed its encryption regulations. The case was therefore sent back to the district court. Over the next two years, both sides filed a number of cross-motions, and in January 2002 Bernstein’s legal team renewed its constitutional challenge to the government’s encryption laws. They argued that the government’s policy violated the First Amendment and restricted research. Finally, at an October 2002 hearing, the federal government backed away from portions of its encryption rules, saying that it would not enforce some of the provisions. The district court then dismissed the case on “ripeness” grounds, holding that any alleged injury to the plaintiff was hypothetical rather than actual.