Battle of Jutland

Battle of Jutland, (May 31–June 1, 1916), the only major encounter between the main British and German battle fleets in World War I, fought near the Skagerrak, an arm of the North Sea, about 60 miles (97 km) off the west coast of Jutland (Denmark).

Planning and positioning

In late spring 1916, after months of calm in the North Sea following the naval action at the Dogger Bank, the main British and German fleets met in a face-to-face encounter for the first time. Paradoxical as it may seem, it was no accident that the navies had avoided a direct confrontation until then. For the Royal Navy, command of the seas was of paramount importance. Its whole outlook, fashioned by centuries of tradition, was based on the premise that so long as the sea routes were open for trade, the future of Britain and its empire was secure. While the German main fleet was penned in German ports, this condition was amply fulfilled. Only German U-boats (submarines) were capable of jeopardizing the safety of the British merchant fleet, and their success was limited at this stage of the war.

The British were not averse to a clash with their German opponents. In fact, the British welcomed an engagement on the high seas, as they believed that their superior numbers and firepower would strongly favour them in open water. Sailing into the submarine and torpedo-boat trap of German home waters, however, was obviously not to be recommended. So long as the German High Seas Fleet was doing no direct harm, the British felt that it was best left alone.

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Eastern Front

1914 - 1918

Battle of the Frontiers

August 4, 1914 - September 6, 1914

Battle of Morhange-Sarrebourg

August 20, 1914 - August 22, 1914

Battle of Mons

August 23, 1914

Battle of Tannenberg

August 26, 1914 - August 30, 1914

First Battle of the Marne

September 6, 1914 - September 12, 1914

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October 19, 1914 - November 22, 1914

Battle of Tanga

November 2, 1914 - November 5, 1914

Battle of the Falkland Islands

December 8, 1914

Christmas Truce

December 24, 1914 - December 25, 1914

battle of Gallipoli

1915

Battle of Dogger Bank

January 24, 1915

Gallipoli Campaign

February 16, 1915 - January 9, 1916

naval operations in the Dardanelles Campaign

February 19, 1915 - March 18, 1915

Second Battle of Ypres

April 22, 1915 - May 25, 1915

Battle of Verdun

February 21, 1916 - December 18, 1916

Battle of Jutland

May 31, 1916 - June 1, 1916

First Battle of the Somme

July 1, 1916 - November 13, 1916

Battle of Arras

April 9, 1917 - May 17, 1917

Battle of Passchendaele

July 31, 1917 - November 6, 1917

Battle of Caporetto

October 24, 1917 - December 19, 1917

Battle of Gaza

November 1917

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November 20, 1917 - December 8, 1917

Battle of Belleau Wood

June 1, 1918 - June 26, 1918

Battle of Amiens

August 8, 1918 - August 11, 1918

Battle of Saint-Mihiel

September 12, 1918 - September 16, 1918

Battle of Cambrai

September 27, 1918 - October 11, 1918

Battle of Mons

November 11, 1918

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The Germans, similarly, were well aware of the dangers inherent in a battle with the British Grand Fleet and had no intention of hazarding their ships in such a way. Instead, their policy had been to keep the High Seas Fleet back and to let the submarines carry out the clandestine work of reducing the Grand Fleet piece by piece until it was sufficiently small for the Germans to face it with some hope of success. As it turned out, the submarines failed in this function, and the policy was modified to take into account the possibility of attacking the Grand Fleet in separate parts. In mid-January 1916 Vice Adm. Reinhard Scheer replaced cautious Adm. Hugo von Pohl as commander in chief of the High Seas Fleet. Scheer felt that a more aggressive war policy might prove fruitful, and he soon formulated a plan in accordance with that belief.

The bombardment of Lowestoft and Great Yarmouth, England, by German cruisers on April 25 was intended to lure one part of the British fleet south into a position where the High Seas Fleet could attack it. The scheme worked: Adm. Sir John Jellicoe, commander in chief of the Grand Fleet, sent the 5th Battle Squadron south from the main British base at Scapa Flow, Scotland, to augment Vice Adm. Sir David Beatty’s 1st and 2nd Battle Cruiser Squadrons at Rosyth. It was this augmented fleet which Scheer now sought to ensnare and destroy before the remainder of the Grand Fleet could sortie south from Scapa to its rescue.

The German plan was simple. Vice Adm. Franz von Hipper would command a scouting group consisting of the battle cruisers Lützow, Derfflinger, Seydlitz, Moltke, and Von der Tann, accompanied by four light cruisers. Hipper’s fleet was to steam north from Wilhelmshaven to a point off the Norwegian coastline. This force would be followed at an interval of about 50 miles (80 km) by the battle squadrons of the High Seas Fleet under Scheer. It was hoped that the presence of the scouting group in waters so far from its base would lure the southern section of the Grand Fleet into a pursuit. The main German fleet would then close the gap and destroy the British. At 3:40 pm on May 30, 1916, all units of the High Seas Fleet received the executive signal to put this plan into operation.

Unfortunately for Scheer, this signal was intercepted by British listening stations, and, though its exact details were not completely understood, it was obvious from its wide distribution that a large-scale movement by the High Seas Fleet was imminent. Jellicoe was informed, and by 10:30 pm—before even the German scouting group had left the Jadebusen (Jade Bay)—the entire British Grand Fleet was at sea, Jellicoe’s force making for a rendezvous with Beatty’s near the entrance to the Skagerrak, fairly across the planned route of the German fleet. Hipper led his group to sea at 1:00 am on May 31—the van of a fleet of 100 ships manned by approximately 45,000 officers and men. Though they did not know it, they were to meet 151 ships and some 60,000 men in history’s biggest naval battle up to that date.

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The clash of fleets

By 1:30 pm on May 31, the rival fleets were approaching each other, but each was unaware of the other’s presence. The High Seas Fleet had rigidly adhered to Scheer’s plan, though Hipper was as yet uncertain whether his scouting group had lured Beatty’s fleet across the North Sea.

For their part, the British were inclined to believe that another fruitless sweep to find the Germans had taken place and that they would soon return to their respective bases. The call sign of the German flagship was, in fact, still being heard from the Jadebusen. Jellicoe, unaware that the transference of this call from ship to shore was a normal practice when the High Seas Fleet put to sea, believed that the main body of that fleet was still in German waters. Beatty’s battle cruisers, with the 5th Battle Squadron in attendance 5 miles (8 km) astern, were reaching the eastern limit of their sweep and would soon turn northward to meet Jellicoe’s force at the rendezvous point. It was a clear, calm spring day. At 2:15 pm the turn commenced, a light-cruiser screen spreading out between the heavy ships and the Helgoland Bight.

Just before 2:00 pm the light cruiser Elbing, on the western flank of the German scouting group, sighted the smoke of a small Danish steamer, the N.J. Fjord, on the horizon to the west. Two torpedo boats were dispatched to investigate. Roughly 10 minutes later, Commodore E.S. Alexander-Sinclair, commanding the British 1st Light Cruiser Squadron aboard the Galatea, also saw the Danish ship and steamed off to investigate, accompanied by the light cruiser Phaeton. At 2:20 pm, the cause of their meeting forgotten, both forces were signaling “Enemy in sight,” and at 2:28 pm the Galatea fired the first shots of the Battle of Jutland.

This chance meeting was extremely fortunate for the Germans, for Jellicoe’s battle squadrons were still 65 miles (105 km) to the north. Had the N.J. Fjord not attracted so much attention, Hipper’s scouting group would inevitably have led the High Seas Fleet toward the Grand Fleet when the latter was fully concentrated under Jellicoe’s command. As it was, the British trap was sprung prematurely.

On receipt of the signals from their light cruisers, both Beatty and Hipper turned and raced toward the sound of gunfire, and at 3:20 pm the two opposing lines of battle cruisers were in sight of each other, maneuvering for position. At 3:48 pm Hipper’s flagship, the Lützow, opened fire, which was promptly returned, but during the next 20 minutes the British line suffered severely: the Lion, the Princess Royal, and the Tiger were hit repeatedly, and the Indefatigable, caught by two salvoes from the Von der Tann, capsized and sank. The 5th Battle Squadron (left behind by the faster battle cruisers) now joined the British line, and its heavy guns caused such damage to Hipper’s battle cruisers that the German torpedo-boat screen moved in to launch a torpedo attack. At this moment another British battle cruiser, the Queen Mary, blew up with a shattering explosion, having been hit in a main magazine.

While this action was in progress, British Commodore W.E. Goodenough’s 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron was patrolling south of Beatty’s main force, and at about 4:40 pm Goodenough reported having sighted the main body of the High Seas Fleet. Beatty immediately withdrew northward to lure the enemy toward the rest of the Grand Fleet, the 5th Battle Squadron covering the withdrawal.

To Jellicoe, Goodenough’s signal came as an illuminating surprise, but, unfortunately, it was not sufficiently detailed. Some 40 miles (64 km) still separated him from Beatty’s battle cruisers—and how much farther away was the main enemy force? Jellicoe’s battleships, steaming in six columns abeam of each other, would need to be deployed in one line before action. Both the method and the moment of deployment were matters of vital importance, and the admiral could make no decision on them until he knew the enemy’s position and course.

Just before 6:00 pm Jellicoe sighted Beatty’s battle cruisers, now augmented by the 3rd Battle Cruiser Squadron under Rear Adm. Horace Hood. Visibility was rapidly worsening, however, and it was 6:14 pm before Jellicoe received a reply to his urgent signal “Where is the enemy battle fleet?” Twenty seconds later he ordered his main battle fleet to deploy on the port wing division, thus giving the British the benefit of what light remained and also cutting the line of Scheer’s retreat. It was the most vital decision of the battle, and it was taken not a moment too soon. As the last battleship turned into line, the murk cleared slightly to reveal the leading ships of the High Seas Fleet heading for the middle of the Grand Fleet. The broadside of Jellicoe’s entire line could thus be brought to bear on the Germans, who could only reply with the forward guns of their leading ships. For Jellicoe it was a moment of triumph; for Scheer it was one of unparalleled danger.

Three factors contributed to the extrication of the German ships from the trap: their own excellent construction, the steadiness and discipline of their crews, and the poor quality of the British shells. The Lützow, the Derfflinger, and the battleship König led the line and were under broadside fire from 10 or more battleships, yet their main armament remained undamaged, and they fought back to such effect that one of their salvoes fell full on the Invincible (Hood’s flagship), causing an explosion which tore the ship in half and killed all except six of the crew. This success, however, did little to relieve the intense bombardment, and the High Seas Fleet was still pressing forward into the steel trap of the Grand Fleet. Placing full reliance in the seamanship of his captains, Scheer at 6:36 pm ordered a 180° turn for all ships together (the last ship becoming the leader), and, as the battleships and cruisers steered away in retreat, torpedo boats draped thick smoke screens across their rear. Miraculously, there were no collisions.

To Jellicoe it was by no means clear what had taken place. Visibility had worsened, and smoke lay thick over the seas. By 6:45 pm contact with the Germans had been lost, and an unnatural silence descended. Yet the Grand Fleet was still between the High Seas Fleet and the German ports, and this was the situation which Scheer most dreaded. Then at 6:55 pm he ordered another 180° turn, possibly in the hope that he would pass astern of the main British line. He was mistaken, and a few minutes after 7:00 pm he was in a worse position than the one from which he had just extricated himself: his battle line had become compressed, his leading ships were under merciless bombardment again, and it was obvious that he must once more turn away. At 7:16 pm, therefore, to cause a diversion and win time, he ordered his battle cruisers and torpedo-boat flotillas to virtually immolate themselves in a massed charge against the British.

This was the crisis of the Battle of Jutland. As the German battle cruisers and torpedo boats steamed gallantly forward, the battleships astern became confused in their endeavour to turn away. Had Jellicoe ordered the Grand Fleet forward through the Germans’ oncoming screen at that moment, the fate of the High Seas Fleet would have been sealed. As it was, because he overrated the danger of a torpedo attack, he ordered a turn away, and the two opposing lines of battleships steamed apart at more than 20 knots (23 miles [37 km] per hour). They did not meet again, and, when darkness descended, Jellicoe faced the task of covering Scheer’s possible escape routes—southward directly to the Jadebusen or southeastward to the Horns Reef and then home.

Unfortunately for Jellicoe, the British Admiralty failed to inform him that Scheer had requested airship reconnaissance of the area around Horns Reef for the following dawn, with the result that the British battleships steamed too far south during the night. Scheer had turned again after nightfall and crossed astern of Jellicoe’s battle squadrons, resolutely brushing aside the British rearguard of light cruisers and destroyers in a series of sharp actions which caused losses on both sides. Scheer reached the security of the Horns Reef minefields at about 3:00 am on June 1. Just before daylight, Jellicoe turned his battleships to search again for the High Seas Fleet, but he was too late.

Outcome and aftermath

The British sustained greater losses than the Germans in both ships and men: three battle cruisers, three cruisers, and eight destroyers had been sunk against one battleship, one battle cruiser, four light cruisers, and five torpedo craft lost by the Germans; 6,768 British officers and men had been killed or wounded, against 3,058 officers and men killed or wounded in the High Seas Fleet. It was the bloodiest day in British naval history, and the triumphant publication of such figures in the German press gave a worldwide impression that the Royal Navy had suffered a serious reverse. The significant fact, however, was that despite these losses the balance of power in European waters was not essentially changed. The British still dominated the North Sea, and the Germans had not inflicted sufficient losses on their adversary to stand any chance of victory in a new action against its main fleet.

Scheer, did, however, have one more card up his sleeve which he sought to play in 1916. On the evening of August 18, 11 weeks after the Battle of Jutland, he again put to sea with the High Seas Fleet, hoping this time that a bombardment of Sunderland would lure the Grand Fleet into a trap set by his U-boats. The Grand Fleet was ordered south to intercept, and a British force of submarines was amassed off various ports of the North Sea. It was the submarines on both sides which caused the first damage: on the German side, the battleship Westfalen went limping home with damage from a torpedo; on the British side, the light cruiser Nottingham sank off the Farne Islands after being hit three times on the morning of August 19. The U-boats’ sinking of the Nottingham contributed unwittingly to the German failure to lure the bigger game into their trap. Jellicoe, not knowing whether a mine or a torpedo had been responsible for the sinking, turned north and for two hours steamed away from the enemy. By the time he recovered and regained his position, the High Seas Fleet, believing that a small British force coming from Harwich in the south was the main body of the Grand Fleet, had turned tail and made for home.