Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition

Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition, case in which, on April 16, 2002, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a lower court’s decision that provisions of the Child Pornography Prevention Act (CPPA) of 1996 were vague and overly broad and thus violated the free-speech protection contained in the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The act specifically proscribed computer-generated or -altered depictions of minors engaging in explicit sexual conduct (so-called “virtual” child pornography) and images of explicit sexual conduct by adults who resemble minors. The court ruled that the law’s expanded definition of child pornography as including any image that “appears to be” of a minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct or that is “presented…in such a manner that conveys the impression” that it is of a minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct would criminalize images that are not obscene and images that were not produced with any real children.

The CPPA was introduced in the U.S. Congress in response to the development of computer technology that allowed the creation of electronic images that appeared in every way to be photographs of real subjects but in fact were entirely artificial. Other technology enabled genuine photographs to be digitally altered so as to introduce fictional elements that were virtually undetectable. The sponsors of the legislation argued that the existing legal definition of child pornography as images of minors engaged in explicit sexual conduct needed to be broadened to include computer-generated or -altered images that only appeared to depict such activity. They reasoned that such images could be used as easily as real images by pedophiles to seduce children into sexual conduct, that they were just as effective as real images in whetting the pedophile’s desire to exploit children sexually, and that their exact similarity to real images would make it difficult to identify and prosecute those who possessed or distributed child pornography involving real children. The CCPA accordingly defined child pornography as “any visual depiction, including any photograph, film, video, picture, or computer or computer-generated image or picture...of sexually explicit conduct,” in which

(A) the production of such visual depiction involves the use of a minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct; (B) such visual depiction is, or appears to be, of a minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct; (C) such visual depiction has been created, adapted, or modified to appear that an identifiable minor is engaging in sexually explicit conduct; or (D) such visual depiction is advertised, promoted, presented, described, or distributed in such a manner that conveys the impression that the material is or contains a visual depiction of a minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct.

The Free Speech Coalition, a trade association of the adult entertainment industry, filed suit in federal district court, which found for the government. Its decision was later reversed by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals. The Supreme Court granted a writ of certiorari, and oral arguments were heard on Oct. 30, 2001. In a 6–3 ruling issued on April 16, 2002, the court upheld the Ninth Circuit’s decision. Writing for the majority, Justice Anthony M. Kennedy argued that the CPPA would prohibit speech that is clearly not obscene by the definition established in Miller v. California (1973)—viz., that a work is obscene if, taken as a whole, it appeals to prurient sexual interests, is patently offensive by community standards, and is devoid of literary, artistic, political, or scientific value. He also rejected the government’s analogy with Ferber v. New York, in which the court found that even speech that was not obscene could be banned in order to protect children from being sexually exploited in its production. Unlike the real child pornography proscribed in Ferber, the virtual child pornography banned by the CPPA “records no crime and creates no victims by its production.…While the Government asserts that the images can lead to actual instances of child abuse, the causal link is contingent and indirect. The harm does not necessarily follow from the speech, but depends upon some unquantified potential for subsequent criminal acts.” Moreover, “the mere tendency of speech to encourage unlawful acts is not a sufficient reason for banning it.”

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Chief Justice William Rehnquist dissented from the majority and was joined by Justice Antonin Scalia. (Justice Sandra Day O’Connor concurred in part and dissented in part.) Rehnquist argued that the majority had construed the CCPA too broadly and that it was not the intention of Congress that the law should be used to prohibit speech of genuine merit, such as that of a modern film portraying the teenage lovers in Romeo and Juliet. “We should be loath to construe a statute as banning film portrayals of Shakespearian tragedies, without some indication—from text or legislative history—that such a result was intended. In fact, Congress explicitly instructed that such a reading of the CPPA would be wholly unwarranted.”