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Why did Frederick I appoint bishops despite the Concordat of Worms?

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Medieval manuscript miniature showing Frederick I as a crowned crusader holding an orb and scepter, with Henry of Schaftlarn kneeling and presenting a book to him. — Frederick I Frederick I as a Crusader with (right) Henry of Schäftlarn dedicating to him a copy of the *History of the First Crusade* by Robert of St. Remy; miniature from a manuscript in the Vatican Library.

Frederick I’s decision to fill vacant episcopal sees was rooted in his refusal to accept the preeminence the papacy had gained over the Holy Roman Empire during the Investiture Controversy. By appointing bishops, he directly challenged the Concordat of Worms, which had been established in 1122 to settle the struggle over the control of church offices.12

Historically, the right to invest bishops with the symbols of their office was a customary prerogative of rulers, as these prelates served as essential instruments of government, providing military support, counsel, and administrative service. Frederick I sought to reassert the traditional authority of the emperor over these appointments, viewing the limitations imposed by the Concordat as an infringement on imperial power. His actions reflected a broader ambition to restore the predominance of the Empire over European monarchies, a goal he pursued with significant political skill despite the shifting political landscape of the 12th century.31