Theodor Mommsen

Theodor Mommsen (born November 30, 1817, Garding, Schleswig [now in Germany]—died November 1, 1903, Charlottenburg, near Berlin, Germany) was a German historian and writer, famous for his masterpiece, Römische Geschichte (The History of Rome). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1902.

Early years

Mommsen was the son of a Protestant minister in Garding, Schleswig, and he grew up in Oldesloe (now Bad Oldesloe). He received his basic classical training in the senior classes of the Gymnasium (secondary school) Christianeum in Altona, then part of the Duchy of Holstein. From 1838 to 1843 he studied jurisprudence at the University of Kiel; inasmuch as the study of jurisprudence in Germany at the time was largely a study of Roman law, this had an essential influence on the direction of his future research. He owed his idea of the close interrelationship between law and history not so much to his teachers as to the writings of Friedrich Karl von Savigny, one of the founders of the historical school of jurisprudence. After he had received his master’s and his doctor’s degrees, a research scholarship granted by his sovereign, the king of Denmark, allowed him to spend three years—from 1844 to 1847—in Italy. During this time Italy became his second home and the Archaeological Institute in Rome one of the headquarters from which he pursued his research. By that time Mommsen had already conceived the plan for the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, a comprehensive collection of Latin inscriptions preserved since antiquity on stone, iron, and other enduring materials, arranged according to the basic principles of philological methodology. Having been prepared for this field by the young Kiel professor Otto Jahn, he soon became a master of epigraphy—the study and interpretation of inscriptions—under the guidance of Bartolomeo Borghesi, the learned statesman of San Marino. Within the next several decades Mommsen made the corpus of Latin inscriptions into a source work that was essential in complementing the one-sidedly literary tradition and that, for the first time, made a comprehensive understanding of life in the ancient world possible.

When he returned from Italy, Mommsen found his country in a state of mounting unrest. As a native of Schleswig he was a subject of the Danish king, but he considered himself German, wanted to remain German, and looked forward to German unity. For him freedom meant not only the independence of the German states from foreign influence but also the freedom of the German citizen to adapt himself to any sort of constitution except that of despotism or a police state. A liberal, he considered the republic the ideal state, yet he was quite content with a constitutional monarchy so long as it was not a cover for some sort of pseudo-constitutional autocracy. Mommsen’s political activities began with his editorship of the Schleswig-Holsteinische Zeitung for the provisional government established during the revolution of 1848. Yet journalism was not much to his taste; he was happy when, at the end of 1848, he was offered a professorship in civil law at the University of Leipzig. Nevertheless, he remained politically minded as long as he lived—as a thoughtful and critical observer as well as an active politician. (He was a deputy in the Prussian Landtag from 1873 to 1879 and in the German Reichstag from 1881 to 1884.) He continued to devote time and energy to politics, but it is doubtful that he thereby served his country’s and his own best interests. While he was an acknowledged authority in his field of scholarship, in politics he remained a camp follower, who achieved no more than many others. Moreover, he more than once jeopardized his career by his political activities. Because of his participation in an uprising in Saxony in May 1849, he lost his professorship and almost landed in prison.

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After his dismissal from his post in Leipzig, Mommsen in 1852 accepted a professorship in jurisprudence in Zürich. The grief he expressed about being an “exile” showed how deeply he felt himself to be a German. In 1854, however, he was offered a professorship in Prussia at the University of Breslau. It was at this time that he married Marie Reimer, daughter of a bookseller. Their long and happy marriage produced 16 children.

The historian and his works

During the years he spent at Leipzig, Zürich, and Breslau, Mommsen wrote the first three volumes of the Römische Geschichte, up to the Battle of Thapsus, 46 bc. This work embodied the new historical method applied to the history of Rome. Mommsen critically examined hitherto unquestioned traditions and rejected the attitude of the Enlightenment, which had idealized the classical age. He readily acknowledged himself to be a disciple of the historian Barthold Georg Niebuhr, who introduced rigorous criticism of sources into historiography, however much their methods of research and presentation differed and despite the fact that he went considerably beyond his great predecessor in demythologizing Roman history. In Mommsen’s view it was important that the ancients should come down to earth from the Olympian heights upon which they appeared to the mass of the public. This modern style was not to everyone’s taste, for, in bringing the past to life, he used the political and sociological vocabulary of the 19th century. When he speaks of the squirearchy and the cloth exerting their “malignant” influence even in ancient Rome, it is Mommsen the liberal politician speaking. Nevertheless, his Römische Geschichte is not a politically tendentious work but a piece of scholarship of the highest rank, which gains from its distinction of style.

The philologist is regarded as the preserver of verbal tradition, but as a philologist Mommsen was more than that: he was an artist, and he proved his artistry in his treatment of language. He disliked any incongruous mixture of prose styles and, in the Römische Geschichte and Römisches Staatsrecht (“Roman Constitutional Law”), he created two works, both of which attain exemplary unity of form and content yet demonstrate two different styles. Without being a creative poet, he used the means of poetry and enjoyed exercising his poetic talent. An excellent testimony to his abilities is the Liederbuch dreier Freunde (“Songbook of Three Friends”), which he published in 1843 together with his brother Tycho and the writer and poet Theodor Storm. Throughout his life Goethe was his ideal not only as a poet but also as “the wisest man of the century.” His perfect command of English, French, and Italian did much to make his journeys of research successful; he quoted Shakespeare in his letters almost as often as Goethe.

To many critics Mommsen’s glorification of the dictator Caesar and his disparagement of Caesar’s opponents, Pompey and Cicero, seem strangely inconsistent with his political liberalism. He tried to make his critics understand that he had praised Caesar only as a saviour of the decaying state; yet Mommsen’s admiration for the autocrat reveals something of his own character. He himself was an autocrat in his own branch of scholarship, adopting a manner that his opponents labeled “caesarism.” At the same time, however, he had an unusual need for the fellowship of like-minded men. He held personal contacts to be one of the most important elements of life; indeed, it might be said that he had a genius for friendship. Yet it was mostly a friendship with men who looked up to him. With anyone who considered himself Mommsen’s equal, a friendly relationship was not likely to last long.

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It was only as a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences that Mommsen could pursue his project of publishing his collection of Latin inscriptions, and for this reason in 1858 he was offered a post in Berlin. In 1861 he also became a professor in the philosophy faculty at the university; because of his philological and historical interests he chose that faculty rather than that of law. As a teacher of Roman history and epigraphy—especially in his seminars—he trained many students who were later to make their mark in these fields. The main part of his scholarly work was taken up with the continuation of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (published 1863 and after). He also acted as adviser on many other great scholarly enterprises, such as the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, the exploration of the limes (Roman border fortifications in southwestern Germany), the numismatic work of the Prussian Academy, and the Thesaurus Linguae Latinae. Even in old age his mind was open to the new demands of scholarship, as shown by his interest in the new study of papyrology.

Mommsen’s historical work was interrupted by his work on inscriptions; thus, the Römische Geschichte was never completed. Its first three volumes had been published in 1854–56. When, several decades later, in Berlin, Mommsen set out to complete his history, he abandoned the idea of writing the fourth volume, which was to contain the history of the emperors, because he felt that he would not be capable of writing it in the same brilliant style as his history of the republic. The fifth volume (1885) deals with the history of the Roman provinces in the first three centuries of the empire. No one but Mommsen could have depicted this period in so authoritative a manner, for no one else knew the nonliterary sources—the inscriptions and coins—as did he. The Römische Geschichte has been translated into English as The History of Rome, with the fifth volume entitled The Provinces of the Roman Empire.

The greatest monument to Mommsen’s scholarship, the work which is of even greater significance for scholars than the Römische Geschichte, is Römisches Staatsrecht (“Roman Constitutional Law”), published in 3 volumes between 1871 and 1888. He himself said that if he were to be remembered by anything, it would be by this work. The Romans themselves never codified their constitutional law; Mommsen was the first to do it. His historical approach to classical scholarship led him to systematize the innumerable legal details upon which the Roman constitution was based and to explain this complex body of law through an understanding of its historical development. Only an individual who, like Mommsen, was grounded both in law and in the classics would be in a position to investigate the public law of the Romans, and only an individual trained to think in historical concepts could understand it.

In public law, criminal law stands side by side with constitutional law, and Mommsen’s last great work, published in 1899, is Römisches Strafrecht (“Roman Criminal Law”).

When Mommsen, who had already become a mythical figure for his contemporaries, died just four weeks before his 86th birthday, he had attained what he had always wanted. The task which he had set himself to fulfill, according to his own almost superhuman standards, he had completed.