Witte’s reputation was at first eclipsed through the collapse of tsarism, but he is now appreciated as a successor to Peter I the Great in the drive to modernize a backward empire and as a forerunner of the Communists in the policy of implementing an industrial revolution from above. The “Witte period” of 1892–1903 may well be compared to the period of the First Five-Year Plan. But Witte worked in an unsympathetic political context that was perhaps incompatible with industrialization and by which he was ultimately defeated.