Scipio Africanus

Scipio Africanus (born 236 bce—died 183 bce, Liternum, Campania [now Patria, Italy]) was a Roman general noted for his victory over the Carthaginian leader Hannibal in the great Battle of Zama (202 bce), ending the Second Punic War. For his victory he won the surname Africanus (201 bce).

Family background

Publius Cornelius Scipio was born into one of the great patrician families in Rome; his father, grandfather, and great-grandfather had all been consuls in their day. In 218 bce Scipio’s father, also named Publius Cornelius Scipio, held the consulship in one of the most critical years of Rome’s history. While with him during an engagement on the Ticinus River, the young Scipio made his first appearance in history. According to the Roman historian Livy, the Roman force was outflanked by Numidian cavalry. Seeing his father wounded, the younger Scipio charged forward, an action that allowed Scipio père to escape with his guard of cavalry officers and his young son. This anecdote was also recounted by the historian Polybius on the authority of Scipio’s friend Laelius, and it may well be true.

Nothing is known of Scipio’s boyhood or the date of his marriage to Aemilia, daughter of Aemilius Paullus, consul of 216, who fell at Cannae. Scipio had two sons: Publius, who was debarred by ill health from a public career and who adopted the name Scipio Africanus the Younger, and Lucius, who became praetor in 174. Scipio’s physical appearance is shown on some coins minted at Carthago Nova (now Cartagena, Spain)—which almost certainly bear his portrait—and also probably on a signet ring found near Naples.

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Military career

According to Livy, Scipio served as a young military tribune at the disastrous Battle of Cannae in 216. He escaped after the defeat to Canusium (modern Canosa di Puglia, Italy), where some 4,000 survivors rallied; there he boldly thwarted a plot of some fainthearts to desert Rome. Then in 213 he returned to a civilian career by winning the position of curule (“higher”) aedile; the story is told that when the tribunes objected to his candidature because he was under the legal age, he replied, “If all the Roman people want to make me aedile, I am old enough.” Soon family and national disaster followed: his father and uncle were defeated and killed in Spain, where the Carthaginians swept forward to the Ebro River (211).

In 210 the Romans decided to send reinforcements to Spain, but it is said that no senior general would undertake the task and that young Scipio offered himself as a candidate; at any rate, the Roman people decided to invest him with a command there, although he was technically a privatus (not a magistrate). This grant of a military command outside Italy by the people to a man who had not been praetor or consul created an important constitutional precedent. Thus, Scipio was given the chance to avenge the deaths of his father and uncle in Spain, where he hoped not merely to hold the Carthaginian armies at bay and prevent their sending reinforcements to Hannibal in Italy but to resume his father’s offensive policy, to turn back the tide of war, and to drive the enemy out of the Iberian Peninsula. Such a task must have seemed fantastic in 210, but Scipio had the confidence and ability; it was achieved in the next four years.

From his headquarters at Tarraco (Tarragona) in 209, Scipio suddenly launched a combined military and naval assault on the enemy’s headquarters at Carthago Nova, knowing that all three enemy armies in Spain were at least 10 days distant from the city. Polybius relates that Scipio had heard from Spanish fishermen at Tarraco that the water level around Carthago Nova varied daily and that it was especially low in the afternoon. Helped by a lowering of the water in a lagoon, which exposed the northern wall, he successfully stormed the city. This possibly tidal phenomenon, attributed to the help of Neptune, was perhaps enhanced by an offshore wind; at any rate, it increased the troops’ belief in their commander’s divine support. In Carthago Nova he gained stores and supplies, Spanish hostages, the local silver mines, a splendid harbour, and a base for an advance farther south.

After training his army in new tactics, Scipio defeated the Carthaginian commander Hasdrubal Barca at Baecula (Bailen) in Baetica (208); whereas normally the two rear ranks of a Roman army closely supported the front line, Scipio in this battle, under a screen of light troops, divided his main forces, which fell upon the enemy’s flanks. When Hasdrubal broke away, ultimately to join his brother Hannibal in Italy, Scipio wisely declined the impossible task of trying to stop him and decided rather to accomplish his mission in Spain—the defeat of the other two Carthaginian armies still there. This he brilliantly achieved in 206 at the Battle of Ilipa (Alcalá del Río, near Sevilla). Over several days of posturing and light skirmishing between the arrayed armies, Scipio lulled the Carthaginian commanders—Hasdrubal (son of Gisco) and Mago—into a sense of routine. On the day of the battle, Scipio dramatically altered that routine, arriving in full force at dawn and changing the order of his troops so that where he was strong the Carthaginians were weak. He used his Roman veterans to execute a series of audacious flanking maneuvers while his fickle Spanish allies held the enemy’s main forces in place. The Carthaginian armies were destroyed, and Hasdrubal and Mago fled the field. Scipio then secured Gades (Cádiz), thus making Roman control of Spain complete.

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After he was elected consul for 205, Scipio boldly determined to disregard Hannibal—already largely contained in southern Italy—and to strike instead at Africa. Once he had beaten down political opposition in the Senate, he crossed to Sicily with an army consisting partly of volunteers, some of whom had also survived the disaster of Cannae and sought to redeem themselves. While preparing his troops, he boldly snatched Locri Epizephyrii, in the toe of Italy, from Hannibal’s grasp, though the subsequent misconduct of Pleminius, the man he left in command of the town, gave Scipio’s political opponents cause to criticize him. In 204 he landed with perhaps 35,000 men in Africa, where he besieged Utica. Early in 203, with the help of Rome’s new Numidian ally Masinissa, he burned the camps of Hasdrubal (son of Gisgo) and his Numidian ally Syphax. Then, sweeping down on the forces that the enemy was trying to muster at the Great Plains on the upper Bagradas (modern Sūq al Khamīs, on the Majardah in Tunisia), he smashed that army by a double flanking movement.