Saul

Saul (flourished 11th century bce, Israel) was the first king of Israel (c. 1021–1000 bce). According to the biblical account found mainly in 1 Samuel, Saul was chosen king both by the judge Samuel and by public acclamation. Saul was similar to the charismatic judges who preceded him in the role of governing. His chief contribution, however, was to defend Israel against its many enemies, especially the Philistines.

Biblical account of his life

The account of Saul’s life comes from the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) book of 1 Samuel. The son of Kish, a well-to-do member of the tribe of Benjamin, he was made king by the league of 12 Israelite tribes in a desperate effort to strengthen Hebrew resistance to the growing Philistine threat. For roughly two centuries, Israel had existed as a loose confederation of tribes, dependent for their unity upon bonds of religious faith and covenant that were renewed periodically in cultic ceremonies at the central shrine at Shiloh. By Saul’s day, however, the tribal rallies were no match for the superior iron weapons and chariots of the Philistines, who were pressing ever deeper into the central highlands.

Two literary strands are discernible in the accounts in 1 Samuel involving Saul. One of these (9:1–10:16), reflecting a favourable attitude toward the monarchy, relates how the tall, handsome son of Kish was initially selected by Samuel, the seer, in a private encounter between the two men. From this same circle of tradition (chapter 11) comes the account of Saul’s heroic deliverance of the town of Jabesh-Gilead from oppression by the Ammonites, which brought him to the attention of all Israel and resulted in his acclamation as king in a public ceremony at Gilgal. A second body of tradition (1 Samuel 8, 10:17–27, and 12) is at pains to record Samuel’s misgivings about the kingship. Although in this account he anoints Saul as a concession to popular pressure, Samuel warns of the loss of personal and tribal freedom that will follow and interprets the action as tantamount to a rejection of God.

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Saul’s reign

In many respects, Saul’s reign bears a closer resemblance to the judges who preceded him than to the succession of kings who followed. His chief service to Israel, like that of the judges, lay in the sphere of military defense. Together with his stalwart son Jonathan and an army composed largely of volunteers, he won significant victories over the Philistines and succeeded in driving them out of the central hills. A successful campaign against the Amalekites in the south is also recorded (1 Samuel 15). There is no evidence, however, that Saul made any appreciable changes in the nation’s internal structures. The only royal official named in the accounts is the military commander Abner, Saul’s cousin. In effect, Saul’s reign was marked by few of the trappings of the typical Eastern monarchies, with no court bureaucracy, splendid palace, or harem. His capital at Gibeah is revealed by archaeology as a simple, rustic fortress.

The two men who significantly influenced Saul’s career were Samuel and David. Even as Samuel’s endorsement proved crucial in assuring Saul the kingship, probably nothing contributed so much to the king’s subsequent disintegration as his break with the powerful and respected Samuel. Separate accounts attributed this to Saul’s failure in religious duties—presumption in offering unauthorized sacrifice before battle and a reluctance to devote Amalek to destruction according to the principle of holy war. Samuel’s rejection of Saul, which was complete and irrevocable, withdrew from the king the religious sanctions essential for popular support and Saul’s own mental well-being.

David, who came into Saul’s court because of either his military prowess or his skill as a harpist, according to varying accounts in 1 Samuel, is named both as the one who soothed the king with his sweet music and as the object of a fierce jealousy resulting from the young warrior’s successes in battle. When secret attempts to take David’s life proved no more successful than Saul’s efforts to turn the hearts of his daughter Michal (David’s wife) and his son Jonathan away from their winsome husband and friend, Saul declared openly his intention to slay David. Only David’s flight to Philistia, which was beyond Saul’s reach, saved him from the king’s unprovoked and manic attacks. These accounts, though written from a perspective favourable to David, portray dramatically and convincingly the mental deterioration of Saul. Nothing is more revealing of the extent of the king’s derangement than the story of his senseless slaughter of the 85 priests at Nob, noted in 1 Samuel 22.

Adding to the problems of Saul’s final days, the Philistines mounted new attacks on the Israelite heartland. At no time strong enough to deliver a final blow to the persistent enemy, Saul gathered his forces at Mount Gilboa in an effort to cut off their drive into the Valley of Jezreel. A vivid story in 1 Samuel 28 relates how, on the eve of the fateful battle, Saul sought, through a necromancer at Endor, some word of encouragement from the dead Samuel. The oracle of Samuel’s ghost, however, could only foretell the doom awaiting on the following day—the defeat of the Israelite forces and the death of Saul and his sons. The Israelites, once again confronted by the desperate conditions prevailing at Saul’s accession to the throne, had to look to a new deliverer. The man best fitted for the job was David.

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Legacy

Any fair evaluation of Saul’s stormy career must look beyond the antimonarchal tendencies of his biographers and the implicit comparisons with the more successful David. Best described as a tragic hero, Saul displayed a strength in battle and an ability to inspire his followers that place him high in the ranks of the military great. If unable finally to solve the Philistine problem, he nevertheless prevented their complete subjugation of the land. So enduring was the devotion of the men of Jabesh-Gilead that they risked their lives to remove Saul’s exposed body from the Philistine fortress at Beth-shan and give it proper burial (1 Samuel 31:11–13). The finest tribute paid the fallen leader is found in the immortal words of David’s magnificent elegy in 2 Samuel 1, which begins, “Thy glory, O Israel, is slain upon thy high places! How are the mighty fallen!”