Samuel Freeman Miller

Samuel Freeman Miller (born April 5, 1816, Richmond, Ky., U.S.—died Oct. 13, 1890, Washington, D.C.) was an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1862–90), a leading opponent of efforts to use the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution to protect business against government regulation. He was spokesman for the court in its first attempt to construe the amendment, passed after the American Civil War largely to assure the rights of the newly freed slaves. He was in the majority then, but his view that the amendment did not bar legislative restraints on industry ceased to prevail by the 1890s and did not again predominate until the late 1930s.

A practicing physician for 12 years, Miller also read law and was admitted to the bar in 1847. His opposition to slavery caused him to move in 1850 from the slave state of Kentucky to the free state of Iowa, where he became a prominent lawyer and a Republican Party leader. Appointed to the Supreme Court by President Abraham Lincoln on July 16, 1862, Miller was the first justice from any state west of the Mississippi River.

During the Civil War, Miller supported military trials of dissident civilians and the Union blockade of the Confederacy. Dissenting from the court, he also approved the federal and state loyalty oaths required of lawyers, teachers, and clergymen immediately after the war. His dissenting opinion in favour of “greenbacks” as war-emergency legal tender (Hepburn v. Griswold, 1870) became the majority’s stand when the court reversed itself the next year and led to the permanent legitimation of paper money in the United States.

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The court’s first opportunity to construe the Fourteenth Amendment was given by the Slaughter-House cases (1873), in which a group of livestock butchers challenged a state law that granted a monopoly of their trade to a single entrepreneur. The amendment, which was supposed to confer civil rights on black Americans, was invoked by the challengers to support the proposition that the right to run a business without state-government interference was one of the protected “privileges and immunities” of citizenship. Concluding that there was no such federal right, Miller strictly limited the amendment’s guarantees of “due process of law” and “equal protection of the laws,” as well as “privileges and immunities of citizens.” While Miller’s view prevailed, business corporations were unable to shield themselves from legislative regulation by claiming to be among the “persons” or “citizens” whose rights the framers of the Fourteenth Amendment intended to safeguard. (In the 1890s, however, the court came to accept Justice Stephen J. Field’s contrary conception of the amendment as an aid to big business.)

By declaring most civil rights to be aspects of state rather than of federal citizenship, Miller unwittingly deprived the federal government of jurisdiction over many problems of the political and social equality of blacks. In Ex parte Yarbrough (1884), however, he upheld federal protection, against repression by private persons, of blacks’ right to vote in congressional elections. Another libertarian opinion by Miller, Kilbourn v. Thompson (1881), checked irresponsible investigation by congressional committees.