Philipp Melanchthon

Philipp Melanchthon (born February 16, 1497, Bretten, Palatinate [Germany]—died April 19, 1560, probably Wittenberg, Saxony) was a German author of the Augsburg Confession of the Lutheran church (1530), humanist, reformer, theologian, and educator. He was a friend of Martin Luther and defended his views. In 1521 Melanchthon published the Loci communes, the first systematic treatment of the new Wittenberg theology developed by Luther. Because of his academic expertise, he was asked to help in founding schools, and he played an important role in reforming public schools in Germany.

Early life and education

Melanchthon inherited from his parents, Barbara Reuter and Georg Schwartzerd, a deep sense of piety that never left him. From his Bretten surroundings (where five citizens were burned as witches in 1504), he absorbed a sense of the occult that combined later with biblical references to stars, dreams, and devils to make him a firm believer in astrology and demonology. In 1508, within a period of 11 days, both his grandfather Reuter and his father died, his father after four years of invalidism.

Humanism predominated in Melanchthon’s education, his studies having been directed by a great-uncle, Johannes Reuchlin, who was a famed Hebraist and humanist. Philipp’s first tutor instilled in him a lifelong love of Latin and classical literature, and at the Pforzheim Latin school he received further humanistic training and had his name changed from Schwartzerd to its Greek equivalent, Melanchthon (meaning “black earth”).

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While at the Universities of Heidelberg (1509–11; B.A.) and Tübingen (1512–14; M.A.), Melanchthon explored the teachings of Scholasticism, steeped himself in the rhetoric of the Dutch humanist Rodolphus Agricola and the Nominalism of the English philosopher William of Ockham and the ecclesiastical reformer John of Wesel, studied Scripture, and read classical works. On receiving the M.A. degree, he lectured, with conspicuous success, on the classics and soon had six books to his credit, including Rudiments of the Greek Language (1518), a grammar that was to go through many editions. He was praised by the great Dutch humanist Erasmus, and his name became known in England. In the best tradition of the time, Melanchthon was a humanist.

In 1518 Melanchthon accepted an invitation, relayed through Reuchlin, to become the University of Wittenberg’s first professor of Greek. Only four days after his arrival, he addressed the university on “The Improvement of Studies,” boldly setting forth a humanistic program and calling for a return to classical and Christian sources in order to regenerate theology and rejuvenate society.

Luther and the Reformation

Martin Luther, the founder of the Protestant Reformation, and Melanchthon responded to each other enthusiastically, and their deep friendship developed. Melanchthon committed himself wholeheartedly to the new Evangelical cause, initiated the previous year when Luther circulated his Ninety-five Theses. (See Researcher’s Note: The posting of the theses.) By the end of 1519 he had already defended scriptural authority against Luther’s opponent Johann Eck, rejected (before Luther did) transubstantiation—the doctrine that the substance of the bread and wine in the Lord’s Supper is changed into the body and blood of Christ—made justification by faith the keystone of his theology, and openly broken with Reuchlin.

During this time he had also published seven more small books and had earned the bachelor of theology degree at Wittenberg. His energy was phenomenal. He began his day at 2:00 am and gave lectures, often to as many as 600 students, at 6:00. In addition, he found time to court Katherine Krapp, whom he married in 1520 and who bore him four children—Anna, Philipp, Georg, and Magdalen.

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At Luther’s urging, Melanchthon lectured on the Letter of Paul to the Romans and in 1521 published the Loci communes rerum theologicarum (“Theological Commonplaces”), the first systematic treatment of Reformation thought. Sin, law, and grace were the principal topics, with free will, vows, hope, confession, and other doctrines subsumed. Drawing on Scripture, Melanchthon argued that sin is more than an external act; it reaches beyond reason into human will and emotions so that the individual cannot simply resolve to do good works and earn merit before God. Original sin is a native propensity, an inordinate self-concern tainting all human actions. But God’s grace consoles humans with forgiveness, and human works, though imperfect, are a response in joy and gratitude for divine benevolence. Three editions of the Loci communes appeared before the end of the year and 18 editions by 1525, in addition to printings of a German translation. The last edition in 1558 was much enlarged and changed. Luther declared that the Loci communes deserved a place in the canon of Scriptures; the University of Cambridge in England later made it required reading, and Queen Elizabeth I virtually memorized it so she could converse about theology.

Despite an imperial decree of death to those who supported Luther, in 1521 Melanchthon sharply answered the Sorbonne’s condemnation of 104 statements of Luther with “Against the Furious Decree of the Parisian Theologasters.” When Melanchthon hesitated to publish his lectures on the Letters of Paul to the Corinthians, Luther took a copy and published them in 1521 with a preface saying, “It is I who publish these annotations of yours, and send you to yourself.” In 1523 Luther did the same with Melanchthon’s notes on the Gospel According to John.

In 1521, during Luther’s stay on the Wartburg, Melanchthon was the leader of the Reformation cause at Wittenberg. After the First Diet of Speyer (1526), where a precarious peace was patched up for the Reform movement, Melanchthon was chosen as one of the 28 commissioners to visit Saxony and regulate the constitution of the churches. In 1528 this resulted in the publication of Unterricht der Visitatoren (“Instructions for Visitors”), a set of instructions for the commissioners. In addition to a statement of Evangelical doctrine, it contained an outline of education for the elementary grades, which was enacted into law in Saxony to establish the first public school system. Melanchthon’s educational plan was widely copied throughout Germany, and at least 56 cities asked his advice in founding schools. Through his lectures and textbooks, and the teachers he trained, Melanchthon exercised great influence in Protestant Germany. He helped found the universities of Königsberg, Jena, and Marburg and reformed those of Greifswald, Wittenberg, Cologne, Tübingen, Leipzig, Heidelberg, Rostock, and Frankfurt an der Oder. His efforts earned him the title “Preceptor of Germany.”