Jürgen Habermas

Jürgen Habermas (born June 18, 1929, Düsseldorf, Germany—died March 14, 2026, Starnberg) was the most important German philosopher of the second half of the 20th century. A highly influential social and political thinker, Habermas was generally identified with the critical social theory developed from the 1920s by the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, also known as the Frankfurt School. He belonged to the second generation of the Frankfurt Institute, following first-generation and founding figures such as Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, and Herbert Marcuse. Habermas was prominent both outside academic circles for his influential contributions to social criticism and public debate and within them for his voluminous treatises and essays in which he fashioned a comprehensive vision of modern society and the possibility of freedom within it. His work powerfully influenced many disciplines, including communication studies, cultural studies, moral theory, law, linguistics, literary theory, philosophy, political science, religious studies, theology, sociology, and democratic theory.

Career and public life

Habermas grew up in Gummersbach, Germany. At age 10 he joined the Hitler Youth, as did many of his contemporaries, and at age 15, during the last months of World War II, he was sent to the Western Front. After the Nazi defeat in May 1945, he completed his secondary education and attended the Universities of Bonn, Göttingen, and Zürich. At Bonn he received a Ph.D. in philosophy in 1954 with a dissertation on Friedrich Schelling. From 1956 to 1959 he worked as Theodor Adorno’s first assistant at the Institute for Social Research. Habermas left the institute in 1959 and completed his second doctorate (his habilitation thesis, which qualified him to teach at the university level) in 1961 under the political scientist Wolfgang Abendroth at the University of Marburg; it was published with additions in 1962 as Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit (The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere). In 1961 Habermas became a privatdozent (unsalaried professor and lecturer) in Marburg, and in 1962 he was named extraordinary professor (professor without chair) at the University of Heidelberg. He succeeded Max Horkheimer as professor of philosophy and sociology at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University of Frankfurt am Main (Frankfurt University) in 1964. After 10 years as director of the Max Planck Institute in Starnberg (1971–81), he returned to Frankfurt, where he retired in 1994. Thereafter he taught in the United States at Northwestern University (Evanston, Illinois) and New York University and lectured worldwide.

As a prominent voice within West Germany’s postwar “skeptical generation,” Habermas participated in the major intellectual debates within the country in the second half of the 20th century and beyond. In 1953 he confronted Martin Heidegger over the latter’s rediscovered Nazi sympathies in a review of Heidegger’s Einführung in die Metaphysik (1953; Introduction to Metaphysics). In the late 1950s and again in the early 1980s Habermas engaged with European-wide antinuclear movements, and in the 1960s he was one of the leading theorists of the student movement in Germany—though he effectively broke with the radical core of the movement in 1967, when he warned against the possibility of a “left fascism.” In 1977 he protested against curbs on civil liberties in domestic antiterrorist legislation, and in 1985–87 he participated in the so-called “historians’ debate” on the nature and extent of German war guilt by denouncing what he regarded as historical revisionism of Germany’s Nazi past; he also warned of the dangers of German nationalism posed by Germany’s reunification in 1989–90. Although he endorsed the Persian Gulf War (1991) as necessary to protect Israel and the bombing of Serbia (1999) by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) as necessary to prevent the genocide of ethnic Albanians in Kosovo, he opposed the Iraq War (2003) as unnecessary and illegal. He also promoted the creation of a constitutional supranational democracy in the European Union, opposed human cloning, and warned against the reaction of religious fundamentalists of all kinds, both within and outside the West, to destructive secularization.

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