John XXII

John XXII (born, Cahors, Fr.—died Dec. 4, 1334, Avignon) was the second Avignon pope (reigned 1316–34), who centralized church administration, condemned the Spiritual Franciscans, expanded papal control over the appointment of bishops, and, against Emperor Louis IV, upheld papal authority over imperial elections.

Born of a wealthy bourgeois family at Cahors in southwestern France, Jacques Duèse studied canon and civil law at Paris and Orléans. In 1309 he became chancellor to Charles II of Naples and was made a cardinal three years later. On Aug. 7, 1316, he was elected pope at Lyon succeeding Clement V, and proceeded to establish the papal court at Avignon on a permanent basis.

Early in his pontificate, John intervened in a long-standing conflict between two factions in the Franciscan order—the Spirituals, who favoured strict adherence to St. Francis’ rule of poverty, and the Conventuals, who held to a broader interpretation. He supported the Conventuals and persecuted Spirituals who resisted his decision. He later condemned the whole Franciscan theory of evangelical poverty in two decretals (letters): Ad Conditorem Canonum (1322) and Cum Inter Nonnullos (1323), asserting scriptural evidence to show that Christ and the Apostles had owned property.

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John also intervened in a quarrel over the crown of the Holy Roman Empire between Louis the Bavarian (Emperor Louis IV) and Frederick of Austria. Louis defeated Frederick in 1322, but John forbade him to exercise imperial authority until he, as pope, settled the dispute. Louis’s answer was the Sachsenhausen Appellation (May 22, 1324), in which he denied papal authority over imperial elections and attacked John’s condemnation of the Spiritual Franciscans. At the same time Louis received at his court the political philosophers Marsilius of Padua and John of Jandun, who, in their work Defensor pacis (“Defender of the Peace”), had declared the authority of an ecumenical council superior to that of the pope. John retaliated by excommunicating Louis, but, on April 18, 1328, the Emperor had John deposed at Rome. (His condemnation of the Spirituals was held to conflict with the pronouncement of Nicholas III.) The Franciscan Peter of Corbara (Pietro Rainalducci) was elected antipope as Nicholas V, and Michael of Cesena, general of the Franciscan order, appealed to the authority of a church council against John. John thereupon excommunicated Peter and deposed Michael. When Louis returned to Germany in 1329, Peter submitted to John and was subsequently imprisoned at Avignon. The Emperor attempted, without success, to effect a reconciliation with the Pope, and thereafter the Franciscans and their philosopher ally Marsilius continued to carry on a vigorous antipapal propaganda from the imperial court at Munich.

New accusations of heresy were provoked by John’s ideas about the experience of God by the souls of the blessed in the afterlife (the Beatific Vision), which he expressed in four sermons delivered in the winter of 1331–32. Most theologians held that the saints in heaven were immediately admitted to a full vision of the Godhead. John disagreed, holding that the fullness of the Beatific Vision would be delayed until the resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment at the end of the world. Thomas Wallensis, an English Dominican, was imprisoned for publicly disputing the Pope’s position, which was subsequently condemned by a committee of doctors of the University of Paris. A pro-imperial cardinal, Napoleone Orsini, began secret negotiations with the Emperor for the convocation of an ecumenical council to judge John. John tried to reconcile his views with those of his opponents before his death in 1334.

During his pontificate, John had promoted missionary activity in Asia, establishing Catholic bishoprics in Anatolia, Armenia, Iran, and India. At Avignon he founded a papal library and at Cahors, a university. Like most of the Avignon popes, he showed favouritism to his relatives and fellow countrymen. Of 28 cardinals created by him, 20 were from southern France and 3 were his nephews. In appearance he was small, thin, and pale; in character, impetuous, astute, obstinate, and autocratic, though simple and approachable.

His most lasting achievements were in the sphere of law and finance. He added to the body of church law the canons (decrees) of his predecessor, Clement V, and many of his own canons were later added. These were the last additions to canon law until the 16th century. The papal treasury, greatly depleted at the time of his accession, was greatly increased when he died. By the bulls (solemn documents) Execrabilis (1317) and Ex Debito (1319), he increased papal control over the distribution of church offices and over the fees paid by their recipients. He also compiled a new tax book, fixing fees for 145 documents issued by the papal chancery, which was not revised for the next two centuries.

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