Johann Winckelmann

Johann Winckelmann (born Dec. 9, 1717, Stendal, Prussia—died June 8, 1768, Trieste) was a German archaeologist and art historian whose writings directed popular taste toward classical art, particularly that of ancient Greece, and influenced not only Western painting and sculpture but also literature and even philosophy.

Winckelmann was the son of a cobbler. His formative years were deeply influenced by the study of Greek, particularly of Homer, whom he first read in Alexander Pope’s English translation. Later he studied theology at the University of Halle (1738) and medicine at the University of Jena (1741–42). But it was not until 1748, as librarian to Count von Bünau at Nöthnitz near Dresden, that he came into contact with the world of Greek art. There he wrote the formative essay, Gedanken über die Nachahmung der griechischen Werke in der Malerei und Bildhauerkunst (1755; Reflections on the Painting and Sculpture of the Greeks, 1765), in which he maintained, “The only way for us to become great, or even inimitable if possible, is to imitate the Greeks.” His essay became a manifesto of the Greek ideal in education and art and was soon translated into several languages. Under the influence of the Saxon court, he embraced the Catholic faith; and, entering the service of the future cardinal Achinto, he exchanged his homeland for the city of Rome, second only to Paris as a cultural centre. There he rose to the position of librarian of the Vatican, president of Antiquities, and, later, secretary to Cardinal Albani, who had one of the great private collections of classical art. Winckelmann’s position and influential patronage gave him access to the art treasures of Rome and the freedom to develop his talents as art critic and consultant to visitors from among the European nobility. His works were widely read and earned him the respect of the intellectual world of the day, including, somewhat later, the poet Goethe, who said,

Winckelmann is like Columbus, not yet having discovered the new world but inspired by a premonition of what is to come. One learns nothing new when reading his work, but one becomes a new man!

His general Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums (1764; “History of the Art of Antiquity”) is virtually the first work to define in ancient art an organic development of growth, maturity, and decline; to include such cultural and technical factors as climate, freedom, and craftsmanship in explaining the art of a people; or to attempt a definition of ideal beauty. This work inaugurated the division of ancient art into periods—a pre-Phidian (or archaic), the high or sublime style of the great Greek sculptors Phidias and Polyclitus of the 5th century bc, the elegant or beautiful style of the sculptor Praxiteles and the painter Apelles (both flourishing in Greece in the 4th century bc), and the imitative period, corresponding to the Greek-tinctured Hellenistic and the Roman—that have passed into the common parlance of Greek art history. But his fame rests chiefly upon his descriptions of individual works of art, combining meticulous, firsthand observation with a warm and spontaneous style. His remarks on the Laocoön, the Apollo Belvedere, the Niobids, and the Belvedere Torso have become landmarks alike in the history of German literature and art criticism. The study of art history as a distinct discipline and of archaeology as a humane science may be said to date from Winckelmann.

His observations, however true to the spirit of Greek art, are derived almost entirely from later Hellenistic works or Roman copies of Greek masterpieces. He died short of his ambition to visit Greece, in spite of repeated invitations from his friends to undertake the somewhat hazardous venture. The world of Greek art, like the land of Greece itself, remained for him always an ideal, more of the mind than of the eye—a conception that has persisted in varying degrees to the present day. The circumstances leading to Winckelmann’s death are obscure and have given rise to much conjecture about his complex, apparently homosexual, personality. In 1768 he revisited Dresden and Vienna for the first time since his long sojourn in Italy. On his way back to Rome he was murdered at Trieste by a chance acquaintance whom he had befriended. He was buried there in the churchyard of the Cathedral of San Giusto.

The genius and writings of Winckelmann, more than of any other single critic, reawakened the popular taste for classical art and were instrumental in generating the Neoclassical movement in the arts. Winckelmann’s two most influential works were the Reflections and the “History.”

The Reflections, essentially a philosophical definition of the Greek aesthetic, contains his often-quoted dictum on the “noble simplicity and quiet grandeur” of Greek sculpture. It also contains a description of the Greek statue of Laocoön that profoundly influenced the German playwright and critic Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, as well as much subsequent discussion on the relation between art, literature, and the emotions. The “History,” though now long antiquated, is significant for having given the study of the history of art its foundations and a scientific methodology.

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Winckelmann’s visits to Pompeii and Herculaneum during the early years of their discovery led to his communications in the form of “open letters,” which exposed the blunders of amateur treasure seekers and helped put these excavations into competent hands. For this and his catalog of ancient gems, he has been called the “father of modern archaeology.”