James McNeill Whistler

James McNeill Whistler (born July 11, 1834, Lowell, Massachusetts, U.S.—died July 17, 1903, London, England) was an American-born artist noted for his paintings of nocturnal London, for his striking and stylistically advanced full-length portraits, and for his brilliant etchings and lithographs. An articulate theorist about art, he did much to introduce modern French painting into England. His most famous works include Arrangement in Grey and Black No. 1 (1871; also called Portrait of the Artist’s Mother or Whistler’s Mother) and Nocturne in Black and Gold, the Falling Rocket (1875).

Early years

Whistler was born of Scottish-Irish ancestry. As a boy, he spent some time in Russia at St. Petersburg, where his father was a civil engineer; after a short stay in England en route, he was back in the United States by 1849. He attended the United States Military Academy at West Point, but he soon abandoned the army for art.

Like many of his compatriots he was fascinated by Paris, where he arrived in 1855 to study painting and soon adopted a Bohemian lifestyle. He was drawn to the French modern movement, responding to the realism associated with the painters Gustave Courbet, Henri Fantin-Latour, and François Bonvin, all of whom he knew. The realistic streak in his art may be seen in such early works as Self-Portrait (c. 1857–58) and the Twelve Etchings from Nature (1858; also called The French Set).

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During the 1860s Whistler moved between England and Paris. He also visited Brittany (1861) and the coast near Biarritz (1862), where he painted with Courbet and evinced that love of the sea that was to mark a number of his later small oil studies and watercolors. In 1863 Whistler settled in London, where he found congenial themes on the River Thames, and the etchings that he did of such subjects garnered praise from the poet and critic Charles Baudelaire when they were exhibited in Paris.

The move to London

Whistler won considerable success in Paris when Symphony in White, No. 1: The White Girl (1862) was shown at the Salon des Refusés in 1863. This famous painting shows that if he was an exponent of realism, he was also attracted by the Pre-Raphaelite movement, which had begun in England in 1848.

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One of his chief claims to fame was his delight in the Japanese arts—then an avant-garde taste that, significantly, was to have many followers in his own country. Paintings such as The Princess from the Land of Porcelain (1863–65) and Caprice in Purple and Gold: The Golden Screen (1864) indicate his interest in the picturesque rather than the formal aspects of this style. Symphony in Grey and Green: The Ocean (1866), the result of a trip to Valparaíso, Chile, was, however, more Eastern in mood: the signature on this work is painted in an Eastern fashion. This style received its finest expression in Nocturne: Blue and Gold—Old Battersea Bridge (c. 1872–75). His appreciation of East Asian art was complemented by one for earthenware Tanagra figurines from Hellenistic Greece, and their elegant forms influenced his figure painting and drawing. Both the Asian and Hellenistic strains were blended in Six Projects, a series of highly colored oil sketches.

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The 1860s and ’70s were especially creative for Whistler. It was then that he began to give musical titles to his paintings, using words such as symphony and harmony. In doing so he revealed a dependence on the theory of art for art’s sake, which esteemed music as the most abstract of the arts, and on the belief in the “correspondences” between the arts associated with Baudelaire and the French poet Théophile Gautier. It should be emphasized, however, that Whistler was not a lover of music for its own sake. During this period he started to paint his nocturnes—scenes of London, especially of Chelsea, that have poetic intensity and a fin de siècle flavor. These were based on memory or on pencil sketches. For them he evolved a special technique by which paint, in a very liquid state he called a sauce, was stroked onto the canvas in fast sweeps of the brush, somewhat in the manner of Japanese calligraphy.

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From the 1870s onward he was preoccupied by the problems of portrait painting, creating a number of masterpieces, including Arrangement in Grey and Black No. 1 (1871), Harmony in Grey and Green: Miss Cicely Alexander (1872–74), Arrangement in Grey and Black, No. 2 (1872–73; also called Thomas Carlyle), and Symphony in Flesh Color and Pink: Portrait of Mrs. Frances Leyland (1871–74), among others. These are paintings that underline his Aestheticism, his liking for simple forms and muted tones, and his attraction to the work of the 17th-century Spanish painter Diego Velázquez.

Whistler touched the artistic life of his time at many points. He engaged in decorative work, as was shown by the stand he executed for the 1878 Paris exhibition (his collaborator was the architect Edward Godwin) and later his frieze for the Grosvenor Gallery in London. Above all, he painted the famous Harmony in Blue and Gold: The Peacock Room (1876–77) for No. 49 Prince’s Gate, London, the house of F.R. Leyland, a Liverpool shipping magnate. The decoration failed to please his patron, who felt Whistler had exceeded his commission, particularly in painting over some antique leather. The room was moved in 1919 to the Freer Gallery of Art. Whistler was also a force in book design.

During these years in London he came to know many of the most interesting artists of the day—such as Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Albert Moore—and he was a high priest of bohemianism, living for long with Jo Hiffernan, an Irish woman who served as a model to Courbet as well as to Whistler. Although often short of money, he entertained considerably and was already becoming one of the most talked-of men in London.

A change occurred in his life in 1877 when he brought a libel suit against John Ruskin, the celebrated writer on aesthetics, for the latter’s attack on Nocturne in Black and Gold, the Falling Rocket (1875). He won the case but received damages of only a farthing (the least valuable coin of the realm). The need to pay substantial costs occasioned his bankruptcy in 1879, and he was forced to move out of his charming home, the White House in Chelsea. He went to Venice with his mistress, Maud Franklin. He remained there for 14 months and soon became a center of attraction among the many foreign artists who congregated in the city. He seldom painted in oils there, however, and spent most of his time producing pastels and watercolors, exquisite in their coloring. He had arrived with a commission to execute a series of etchings for the Fine Art Society. In all he made just more than 50 etchings of Venetian subjects, which are among the most striking graphic works of the time.

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His etchings won him success in London when exhibited upon his return in 1880 and in 1883. He continued to paint portraits—those of Pablo de Sarasate, Lady Archibald Campbell, Théodore Duret, and Comte Robert de Montesquiou-Fezensac are among the finest—but with increasing difficulty, as he was obsessed by the problem of achieving perfection.