James Andrew Broun Ramsay, marquess and 10th earl of Dalhousie

James Andrew Broun Ramsay, marquess and 10th earl of Dalhousie (born April 22, 1812, Dalhousie Castle, Midlothian, Scot.—died Dec. 19, 1860, Dalhousie Castle) was a British governor-general of India from 1847 to 1856, who is accounted the creator both of the map of modern India, through his conquests and annexations of independent provinces, and of the centralized Indian state. So radical were Dalhousie’s changes and so widespread the resentment they caused that his policies were frequently held responsible for the Indian Mutiny in 1857, one year after his retirement.

Early career

Dalhousie was the third son of George Ramsay, the 9th Earl of Dalhousie. His family had traditions of military and public service but, by the standards of the day, had not accumulated great wealth, and, consequently, Dalhousie was often troubled by financial worries. Small in stature, he also suffered from a number of physical infirmities. Throughout his life he derived energy and satisfaction from the thought that he was achieving public success in spite of private handicaps.

After an undistinguished career as an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford, he married Lady Susan Hay in 1836 and entered Parliament the following year. From 1843 he served as vice president, and from 1845 as president, of the Board of Trade in the Tory (conservative) ministry of Sir Robert Peel. In that office he handled a number of railroad problems and gained a reputation for administrative efficiency. He lost his post when Peel resigned in 1846. In the following year he accepted the new Whig ministry’s offer of the governor-generalship of India, becoming the youngest man ever appointed to that post.

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Arrival in India.

When Dalhousie arrived in India in January 1848, the country seemed peaceful. Only two years earlier, however, the army of the Punjab, an independent state founded by the religious and military sect of the Sikhs, had precipitated a war that the British had won only with great difficulty. The discipline and economy enforced by the new Sikh regime, sponsored by the British, aroused discontent, and in April 1848 a local rebellion broke out at Multān. This was the first serious problem faced by Dalhousie. Local officers urged immediate action, but he delayed, and Sikh disaffection spread throughout the Punjab. In November 1848 Dalhousie dispatched British troops, and, after several British victories, the Punjab was annexed in 1849.

Dalhousie’s critics maintained that he had allowed a local rebellion to grow into a national uprising so that he could annex the Punjab. But the commander in chief of the British army had warned him against precipitate action. Certainly, the steps Dalhousie eventually took were somewhat irregular; the uprising at Multān had been directed not against the British but against policies of the Sikh government. In any event, he was created marquess for his efforts.

Second Burmese War.

In 1852 commercial disputes in Rangoon (now Yangon) prompted new hostilities between the British and the Burmese, a conflict that became the Second Burmese War. It was settled within the year with little loss of life and with the British annexation of Rangoon and the rest of Pegu province. Dalhousie was again criticized for aggressive diplomacy, but Britain profited from the installation of a new Burmese government that was less aggressive abroad and less oppressive at home. Another advantage was that Rangoon, Britain’s most valuable acquisition from the war, became one of the biggest ports in Asia.

Policy of “lapse” and annexation.

Dalhousie also took advantage of every opportunity to acquire territory by peaceful means. The East India Company, which was no longer an independent corporation but largely under the control of the British government, was rapidly becoming the predominant power in India. It had concluded alliances with Indian rulers, promising to support them and their heirs in return for various concessions, including the right to keep a British resident and a military force within their states. Although this type of agreement gave the British an effective influence over general policy, Dalhousie sought to acquire even more power. It was customary for a ruler without a natural heir to ask the British government whether he could adopt a son to succeed him. Dalhousie concluded that if such permission were refused, the state would “lapse” and thereby become part of the British possessions. On these grounds, Sātāra was annexed in 1848 and Jhānsi and Nāgpur in 1854. Dalhousie maintained that there was a difference in principle between the right to inherit private property and the right to govern, but his main argument was his own belief in the benefits of British rule.

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His annexation of Oudh in 1856, however, entailed grave political danger. Here there was no question of lack of heirs; the nawab (ruler) was simply accused of misgovernment, and the state was annexed against his will. The transfer of power over the nawab’s protests offended the Muslim elite. More dangerous was the effect on the British army’s Indian troops, many of whom came from Oudh, where they had occupied a privileged position before its annexation. Under the British government, however, they were treated as equals with the rest of the population, which represented a loss of prestige. Moreover, after Dalhousie’s departure in 1856, the landed aristocracy of Oudh lost many of its privileges. In these various ways, the annexation of Oudh contributed to the mutiny and rebellion of the following year.

Westernization of India.

Dalhousie’s energy extended beyond the mere acquisition of territories. His greatest achievement was the molding of these provinces into a modern centralized state. His confidence in Western institutions and his ability as an administrator immediately led him to attend to the development of a communication and transportation system. He gave much attention to the planning of the first railways. Drawing on the knowledge he had acquired in London at the Board of Trade, he laid the foundation of future railway development, outlining the basic concept of trunk and branch lines and making provisions to safeguard both the railway workers and the property owners affected by railway construction. He planned and instituted a network of electric telegraph lines, promoted the completion of the Grand Trunk Road between Calcutta and Delhi and its extension into the Punjab, and instituted a centralized postal system, based on a low uniform rate paid in advance by the purchase of stamps, thus replacing a variety of methods characterized by uncertainty of delivery and high rates. His social reforms included strong support for the suppression of female infanticide in the Punjab and in the northwest generally and the suppression of human sacrifice among the hill tribes of Orissa. Besides encouraging the use of the vernacular languages in schools, he gave particular encouragement to the education of girls.

He left India in 1856, and the controversies aroused by his policy of annexation, which were widely—and justly—criticized as contributory factors to the mutiny and rebellion of 1857, overshadowed his achievements in modernization. Exhausted by his years of overwork in India, he died in 1860. His marquessate became extinct.