• Ethics

  / Kant
• Albertus University of Königsberg
• Johann Heinrich Lambert
• History of logic

  / Other 18th-century logicians
• Western philosophy

  / Factors in writing the history

• Friedrich Bouterwek
• Johann August Eberhard
• Johann Georg Hamann
• Hermann von Helmholtz

  / Early life
• Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi
• Positivism

  / The critical positivism of Mach and Avenarius
• Salomon Maimon
• Sir Peter Strawson
• Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg

• Ethical Culture
• Art criticism

  / Art criticism in the 18th century: Enlightenment theory
• Ernst Cassirer
• Auguste Comte

  / Thought of Auguste Comte
• history of Europe

  / Kant
• Johann Gottlieb Fichte

  / Early life and career
• Friedrich Gentz

  / Early life and career.
• history of Europe

  / The Aufklärung
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

  / Return to Weimar and the French Revolution (1788–94)
• Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

  / Early life
• Wilhelm Herrmann
• Pragmatism

  / Antecedents in modern philosophy
• Albrecht Ritschl
• Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling

  / Early life and career
• Friedrich Schiller

  / Philosophical studies and classical drama of Friedrich Schiller
• German literature

  / Weimar Classicism: Goethe and Schiller
• Arthur Schopenhauer

  / Early life and education
• Henry Sidgwick
• Philosophy of as if

• Francis Bacon

  / Legacy and influence
• Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten
• David Hume

  / As a philosopher
• history of Europe

  / Rousseau and his followers
• Johannes Nikolaus Tetens

• Western philosophy

  / Critical examination of reason in Kant
• Appearance
• autonomy

  / Kantian autonomy
• Continental philosophy

  / Kant
• education

  / The Rousseauists
• Philosophy of history

  / The idea of an order or design in history
• Philosophy of physics

  / Kant on incongruent counterparts
• foundations of mathematics

  / Riemannian geometry
• mathematics

  / Foundations of geometry
• paternalism

  / Moral considerations of paternalism
• Philosophical anthropology

  / The idealism of Kant and Hegel
• Race

  / Enlightenment philosophers and systematists
• Philosophy of biology

  / Teleology from Aristotle to Kant
• Philosophy of biology

  / Teleology
• Philosophy of biology

  / Teleology
• Philosophy of biology

  / Social and ethical issues
• individualism
• Christianity

  / Intellectualism versus anti-intellectualism
• Synthetic a priori proposition
• Teleology

• revolution

  / Later and modern revolutionary thought
• eschatology

  / Influences on modern ideologies
• state

  / Hegel

• geography

  / Geography’s early research agenda in Europe
• solar nebula
• solar system

  / Origin of the solar system
• history of science

  / The Romantic revolt

Biographies

Ernst Cassirer, Kant’s Life and Thought (1981; originally published in German, 2nd ed., 1921), is a classic; a contemporary treatment is Manfred Kuehn, Kant: A Biography (2001).

General and introductory studies

Good overviews include Paul Guyer, Kant, 2nd ed. (2014); Otfried Höffe, Immanuel Kant, trans. from the German by Marshall Farrier (1994); Stephan Körner, Kant (1955, reissued 1982); and Allen W. Wood, Kant (2005).

Useful anthologies treating broad aspects of Kant’s thought and its historical context include Paul Guyer (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Kant (1992), and The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy (2006). Ruth F. Chadwick (ed.), Immanuel Kant: Critical Assessments, 4 vol. (1992), addresses a wide range of issues in Kantian philosophy. Howard Caygill, A Kant Dictionary (1995), is, despite its title, a collection of brief essays on important concepts and terminology, useful for students and general readers.

Metaphysics and epistemology

Norman Kemp Smith, A Commentary to Kant’s “Critique of Pure Reason,” 2nd ed., rev. and enlarged (1923, reissued 2003), is dated but still influential. Other studies include Henry E. Allison, Kant’s Transcendental Idealism, rev. and enl. ed. (2004); Jonathan Bennett, Kant’s Analytic (1966, reprinted 1975), and Kant’s Dialectic (1974, reprinted 1990); Graham Bird, The Revolutionary Kant: A Commentary on the Critique of Pure Reason (2006); Paul Guyer (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (2010); Paul Guyer, Kant and the Claims of Knowledge (1987, reprinted 2010); Patricia Kitcher (ed.), Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason: Critical Essays (1998); P.F. Strawson, The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant’s “Critique of Pure Reason” (1966, reprinted 1975); and James Van Cleve, Problems from Kant (1999).

Ethics and aesthetics

Kant’s ethics and aesthetics are discussed in Paul Guyer (ed.), Kant’s Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals: Critical Essays (1998); Mark Timmons (ed.), Kant’s Metaphysics of Morals: Interpretive Essays (2002); Henry E. Allison, Kant’s Theory of Freedom (1990), and Kant’s Theory of Taste: A Reading of the Critique of Aesthetic Judgment (2001); Bruce Aune, Kant’s Theory of Morals (1979, reissued 2014); Lewis White Beck, A Commentary on Kant’s Critique of Practical Reason (1960, reprinted 1984); Ted Cohen and Paul Guyer (eds.), Essays in Kant’s Aesthetics (1982); Paul Guyer, Kant and the Claims of Taste, 2nd ed. (1997); Christine M. Korsgaard, Creating the Kingdom of Ends (1996, reprinted 2004); Onora O’Neill, Acting on Principle: An Essay on Kantian Ethics, 2nd ed. (2013), and Constructions of Reason: Explorations of Kant’s Practical Philosophy (1989); Allen W. Wood, Kant’s Ethical Thought (1999); H.J. Paton, The Categorical Imperative (1947, reissued 1971); Roger J. Sullivan, An Introduction to Kant’s Ethics (1994); Paul Arthur Schilpp, Kant’s Pre-Critical Ethics, 2nd ed. (1960, reprinted 1977).

Other topics

Various other domains of Kantian philosophy are discussed in Alix Cohen, Kant and the Human Sciences: Biology, Anthropology, and History (2009); Michael Friedman, Kant and the Exact Sciences (1992), and Kant’s Construction of Nature: A Reading of the Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (2013); Eric Watkins, Kant and the Sciences (2001); William A. Galston, Kant and the Problem of History (1975); Patricia Kitcher, Kant’s Transcendental Psychology (1990); Allen D. Rosen, Kant’s Theory of Justice (1993); Howard Williams, Kant’s Political Philosophy (1983); J.D. McFarland, Kant’s Concept of Teleology (1970); and Allen W. Wood, Kant’s Moral Religion (1970, reissued 2009), and Kant’s Rational Theology (1978, reissued 2009).

Precritical writings

Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte und Beurteilung der Beweise derer sich Herr von Leibniz und andere Mechaniker in dieser Streitsache bedienet haben (1746); Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels (1755; Kant’s Cosmogony…, 1900 and 1968; Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens, 1969); Principiorum Primorum Cognitionis Metaphysicae Nova Dilucidatio (1755; Eng. trans. by F.E. England in Kant’s Conception of God, 1929); Metaphysicae cum geometria iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet Monadologiam physicam (1756); Versuch einiger Betrachtungen über den Optimismus (1759); Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren (1762; trans. in Kant’s Introduction to Logic and His Essay on the Mistaken Subtility of the Four Figures, 1963); Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes (1763; The One Possible Basis for a Demonstration of the Existence of God); Versuch, den Begriff der negativen Grössen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen (1763; An Attempt to Introduce the Conception of Negative Quantities into Philosophy, 1911); Untersuchung über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral (1764); Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen (1764, 1766, 1771; Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime, 1960); Träume eines Geistersehers, erläutert durch Träume der Metaphysik (1766; Dreams of a Spirit-Seer, Illustrated by Dreams of Metaphysics, 1900; Dreams of a Spirit Seer, and Other Related Writings, 1969); De Mundi Sensibilis atque Intelligibilis Forma et Principiis: Dissertatio (1770; Kant’s Inaugural Dissertation and Early Writings on Space, 1929); Von den Verschiedenen Racen der Menschen (1775).

Critical and post-critical writings

Critik der reinen Vernunft (1781; rev. ed., Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 1787; Critique of Pure Reason, 1929, 1950); Prolegomena zur einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik die als Wissenschaft wird auftreten können (1783; Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics, 1951); Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten (1785; The Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Ethics, 1938; The Moral Law; or, Kant’s Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, 1948; Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals, 1969); Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft (1786; Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science, 1970); Critik der practischen Vernunft (1788; Critique of Practical Reason, 1949); Critik der Urteilskraft (1790, 2nd ed. 1793; Kant’s Kritik of Judgment, 1892, reprinted as Kant’s Critique of Judgement, 1914; new version, Critique of Judgement, vol. 1, Kant’s Critique of Aesthetic Judgment, and vol. 2, Critique of Teleological Judgment, 1911–28, republished 1952); Über eine Entdeckung, nach der alle neue Critik der reinen Vernunft durch eine ältere entbehrlich gemacht werden soll (1790; 2nd ed., 1791); Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft (1793; 2nd ed., 1794; Religion Within the Boundary of Pure Reason, 1838; Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone, 2nd ed., 1960); Zum ewigen Frieden (1795; 2nd ed., 1796; Project for a Perpetual Peace, 1796, many later editions called Perpetual Peace; 1915 ed. reprinted 1972); Die Metaphysik der Sitten (1797; 2nd ed., 1798–1803; The Metaphysic of Morals, 2 vol., 1799 and 1965; The Metaphysic of Ethics, 1836), comprising Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Rechtslehre (The Philosophy of Law, 1887) and Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Tugendlehre (The Doctrine of Virtue, 1964); Der Streit der Facultäten (1798); Von der Macht des Gemüths durch den blossen Vorsatz seiner krankhaften Gefühle Meister zu seyn (1798; Kant on the Art of Preventing Diseases, 1806); Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht abgefasst (1798; improved ed., 1800; Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View, 1974); Immanuel Kant’s physische Geographie, 4 vol. in 7, 1801–05); I. Kants Logik: Ein Handbuch zu Vorlesungen (1800; Logic, 1819); Immanuel Kant über Pädagogik (1803; Kant on Education, 1899; The Educational Theory of Immanuel Kant, 1904; Education, 1960); Welches sind die wirklichen Fortschritte, die die Metaphysik seit Leibnizens und Wolf’s Zeiten in Deutschland gemacht hat? (1804).

Editions

The standard edition of Kant’s works is that of the Berlin Academy (later the DDR Academy), Gesammelte Schriften (1902– ), 29 vol. by 1980, which contains Kant’s lectures, correspondence, and literary remains as well as his published writings. A contemporary edition is Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood (eds.), The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, 14 vol. (1992– ).