• United Kingdom

  / Elizabeth I (1558–1603)
• sacrament

  / Confirmation
• Peter Wentworth
• humanism

  / More, Elyot, and Ascham
• Tower of London

• William Allen
• Roger Ascham
• Francis Bacon

  / Early legal career and political ambitions
• William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley

  / Life
• Sir Edward Coke

  / Early life and public service
• William Davison
• Sir Francis Drake

  / Voyages to the West Indies
• Robert Devereux, 2nd earl of Essex
• Walter Devereux, 1st earl of Essex
• John de Feckenham
• Sir Thomas Gresham
• Edmund Grindal
• Sir Christopher Hatton
• Edward Seymour, earl of Hertford
• John Jewel
• John Knox

  / Escape to the Continent
• Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester
• Henry Howard, earl of Northampton
• William Parr, Marquess Northampton
• Alexander Nowell
• Shane O’Neill
• St. Pius V

  / Legacy
• Sir Walter Raleigh
• Roberto Ridolfi
• Robert Cecil, 1st earl of Salisbury
• Sir Philip Sidney
• Richard Tarlton
• John Whitgift

• coin

  / Gold coinage
• Western dance

  / Court dances and spectacles
• education

  / The English Reformation
• gingerbread
• intelligence

  / Intelligence and the rise of nationalism
• lottery

  / Early history
• Royal Navy

  / The dawn of British sea power through Pax Britannica
• Second Amendment

  / Origins and historical antecedents

• House of Tudor
• James I

  / Reign of James VI of Scotland
• Mary, Queen of Scots

  / Early life

• Scotland

  / Mary (1542–67) and the Scottish Reformation
• Ireland

  / The Reformation period
• London

  / Tudor London

Writings by Elizabeth

Some of Elizabeth’s private letters appear in The Letters of Queen Elizabeth, ed. by G.B. Harrison (1935, reprinted 1981); others are included in The Girlhood of Queen Elizabeth: A Narrative in Contemporary Letters, ed. by Frank A. Mumby (1909). Both of these volumes, however, include letters whose authenticity is doubtful. Elizabeth’s translations of classical verse by Boethius, Plutarch, and Horace are published in Queen Elizabeth’s Englishings…, ed. by Caroline Pemberton (1899, reprinted 1975); and her poetry appears in The Poems of Queen Elizabeth I, ed. by Leicester Bradner (1964). A brief sampling of her speeches may be found in The Public Speaking of Queen Elizabeth: Selections from the Official Addresses, ed. by George P. Rice, Jr. (1951, reissued 1966); a more complete selection is available in J.E. Neale, Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments, 2 vol. (1953–57, reissued 1966), which reprints complete transcripts of the queen’s known addresses to Parliament. The speeches she made while on royal progresses are included in John Nichols, The Progresses and Public Processions of Queen Elizabeth, new ed., 3 vol. (1823, reprinted 1966).

Biographies

The standard biography of Elizabeth remains J.E. Neale, Queen Elizabeth (1934, reissued as Queen Elizabeth I, 1971). It should be supplemented by other scholarly biographies; among the most useful are J.B. Black, The Reign of Elizabeth, 1558–1603, 2nd ed. (1959); Neville Williams, Elizabeth, Queen of England (1967; U.S. title, Elizabeth the First, Queen of England, 1968), which stresses the formation under Elizabeth of an English national consciousness; and Paul Johnson, Elizabeth I: A Biography (U.K. title, Elizabeth I: A Study in Power and Intellect, 1974). Works that detail the role of religion in the queen’s policies include Jasper Ridley, Elizabeth I (1987; U.S. title, Elizabeth I: The Shrewdness of Virtue, 1988); and Susan Doran, Elizabeth I and Religion, 1558–1603 (1993). Christopher Haigh, Elizabeth I, 2nd ed. (1998), is a lively exposition of a skeptical case. David Starkey, Elizabeth: Apprenticeship (2000), is a fresh look based on a rereading of her early life. Popular biographies of Elizabeth, even when well researched, tend to be highly speculative about Elizabeth’s emotions and motivations. Among them are Elizabeth Jenkins, Elizabeth the Great (1958, reissued 1972); Lacey Baldwin Smith, Elizabeth Tudor: Portrait of a Queen (1975); Carolly Erickson, The First Elizabeth (1983); and Alison Plowden, The Young Elizabeth (1971), and Elizabeth Regina: The Age of Triumph, 1588–1603 (1980). Selections and extracts of contemporary accounts of Elizabeth may be found in Joseph M. Levine (ed.), Elizabeth I (1969); Richard L. Greaves (ed.), Elizabeth I, Queen of England (1974); and Lacey Baldwin Smith (ed.), Elizabeth I (1980).

Elizabethan government and politics

For the controversy over women’s right to rule a nation, see Paula Louise Scalingi, “The Scepter or the Distaff: The Question of Female Sovereignty, 1515–1607,” Historian, 41(1):59–75 (1978). The doctrine of the king’s two bodies is explained in Ernst H. Kantorowicz, The King’s Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Theology (1957, reissued 1987); and applied to the case of Elizabeth in Marie Axton, The Queen’s Two Bodies: Drama and the Elizabethan Succession (1977). Allison Heisch, “Queen Elizabeth I: Parliamentary Rhetoric and the Exercise of Power,” Signs, 1(1):31–55 (Autumn 1975), analyzes the strategies and effects of Elizabeth’s masterful parliamentary speeches. A particularly thorough analysis of how—and with what consequences—a male-dominated society came to accept strong female rule can be found in A.N. McLaren, Political Culture in the Reign of Elizabeth I (1999).

The structure and practice of Tudor administration is analyzed in Penry Williams, The Tudor Regime (1979, reissued 1981), which may be supplemented by Christopher Coleman and David Starkey (eds.), Revolution Reassessed: Revisions in the History of Tudor Government and Administration (1986); and David Loades, The Tudor Court (1986). The operations of Elizabeth’s government are treated in detail in Wallace MacCaffrey, The Shaping of the Elizabethan Regime (1968, reissued 1971), which addresses the early years of her reign, and Queen Elizabeth and the Making of Policy, 1572–1588 (1981). Joel Hurstfield, Elizabeth I and the Unity of England (1960, reissued 1971), deals with Elizabeth’s largely successful efforts at creating national unity in the face of profound religious, social, and political changes. For the ways in which Elizabethan politics led to 17th-century revolution, see Lawrence Stone, The Causes of the English Revolution, 1529–1642, 2nd ed. (1986); and Christopher Hill, Intellectual Origins of the English Revolution (1965, reprinted 1980).

Aspects of the succession question are addressed by Mortimer Levine, The Early Elizabethan Succession Question, 1558–1568 (1966); Stephen Alford, The Early Elizabethan Polity: William Cecil and the British Succession Crisis, 1558–1569 (1998, reissued 2002); and Joel Hurstfield, “The Succession Struggle in Late Elizabethan England,” in S.T. Bindoff, Joel Hurstfield, and C.H. Williams, Elizabethan Government and Society (1961), ch. 13, pp. 369–396. Elizabeth’s religious policies are studied in William P. Haugaard, Elizabeth and the English Reformation: The Struggle for a Stable Settlement of Religion (1968). The religious affiliations of her councillors are addressed in Winthrop S. Hudson, The Cambridge Connection and the Elizabethan Settlement of 1559 (1980). For foreign policy, see R.B. Wernham, The Making of Elizabethan Foreign Policy, 1558–1603 (1980); and Garrett Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy (1955, reprinted 1988).

Useful overviews of Elizabethan government are given in Alan G.R. Smith, The Government of Elizabethan England (1967); S.T. Bindoff, Tudor England (1950, reprinted 1979); and Christopher Haigh (ed.), The Reign of Elizabeth I (1984).

The image of Elizabeth

The iconography of the queen’s image is examined in Roy Strong, Gloriana: The Portraits of Queen Elizabeth I, rev. ed. (1987), and The Cult of Elizabeth: Elizabethan Portraiture and Pageantry (1977, reprinted 1986), which also treats the chivalric revival under Elizabeth. Elizabeth’s image in literature is exhaustively treated in Elkin Calhoun Wilson, England’s Eliza (1939, reissued 1966); and in Frances Yates, Astraea: The Imperial Theme in the Sixteenth Century (1975, reissued 1985). The relations between Elizabeth’s image and literary representations of her are investigated in Louis Adrian Montrose, “ ‘Eliza, Queene of shepheardes,’ and the Pastoral of Power,” English Literary Renaissance, 10(2):153–182 (1980), and “ ‘Shaping Fantasies’: Figurations of Gender and Power in Elizabethan Culture,” Representations, 1(2):61–94 (Spring 1983). For the staging of the self in this period, see Stephen Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare (1980).

Bibliography

A comprehensive bibliography of works relating to Elizabeth and her times is the Bibliography of British History: Tudor Period 1485–1603, ed. by Conyers Read, 2nd ed. (1959, reissued 1978). Other bibliographies include Mortimer Levine, Tudor England 1485–1603 (1968); and G.R. Elton, Modern Historians on British History, 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography, 1945–1969 (1970).