Augustin-Jean Fresnel

Augustin-Jean Fresnel (born May 10, 1788, Broglie, France—died July 14, 1827, Ville-d’Avray) was a French physicist who pioneered in optics and did much to establish the wave theory of light advanced by English physicist Thomas Young.

Beginning in 1804 Fresnel served as an engineer building roads in various departments of France. He began his research in optics in 1814. He lost his post temporarily during the period following Napoleon’s return from Elba in 1815. At the beginning of the 19th century, the scientific community championed Isaac Newton’s corpuscular, or particle, theory of light. However, in 1802 Young showed that an interference pattern is produced when light from two sources overlaps, which could happen only if light was a wave. Fresnel initially did not know about Young’s experiment, but his experiments with various devices for producing interference fringes and diffraction convinced him that the wave theory of light was correct. As a starting point for his mathematical description of diffraction, Fresnel used Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens’s principle that every point on a wave front can be considered a secondary source of spherical wavelets.

Fresnel presented his work on diffraction as an entry to a competition on the subject sponsored by the French Academy of Sciences in 1819. The committee of judges included a number of prominent advocates of Newton’s corpuscular model of light, one of whom, mathematician Siméon-Denis Poisson, pointed out that Fresnel’s model predicted a seemingly absurd result: if a parallel beam of light falls on a small spherical obstacle, there will be a bright spot at the centre of the circular shadow—a spot nearly as bright as if the obstacle was not there at all. An experiment was subsequently performed by the French physicist François Arago, and the spot (subsequently called Poisson’s spot) was seen, vindicating Fresnel, who won the competition.

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Physics and Natural Law

Despite this triumph for the wave theory of light, the properties of polarized light could seemingly be explained only by the corpuscular theory, and beginning in 1816 Fresnel and Arago studied the laws of the interference of polarized light. In 1817 he was the first to obtain circularly polarized light. This discovery led him to the conclusion that light was not a longitudinal wave as previously supposed but a transverse wave. (Young had independently reached the same conclusion.)

On the recommendation of Arago, in 1819 Fresnel joined Arago on a government committee to improve French lighthouses. In 1821 he produced his first apparatus using the refracting properties of glass, now known as the dioptric system. On a lens panel he surrounded a central bull’s-eye lens with a series of concentric glass prismatic rings. The panel collected light emitted by the lamp over a wide horizontal angle and also the light that would otherwise escape to the sky or to the sea, concentrating it into a narrow horizontal pencil beam. With a number of lens panels rotating around the lamp, Fresnel was then able in 1824 to produce several revolving beams from a single light source, an improvement over the mirror that produces only a single beam. To collect more of the light wasted vertically, he added above and below the main lens triangular prism sections that both refracted and reflected the light. By doing this he considerably steepened the angle of incidence at which rays shining up and down could be collected and made to emerge horizontally. Thus emerged the full Fresnel catadioptric system.

Although his work in optics received scant public recognition during his lifetime, Fresnel maintained that not even acclaim from distinguished colleagues could compare with the pleasure of discovering a theoretical truth or confirming a calculation experimentally.