Auguste Laurent

Auguste Laurent (born Sept. 14, 1808, near Langres, Haute-Marne, France—died April 15, 1853, Paris) was a French chemist who helped lay the foundations of organic chemistry.

Early life and education

After conventional classical schooling, Laurent earned an undergraduate degree in engineering from the prestigious École des Mines in Paris. From 1830 he was employed as a laboratory assistant by Jean-Baptiste Dumas, the leading French chemist and professor at the École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures. After various short-lived industrial posts and an attempt to run a private school of chemistry in Paris, Laurent was appointed professor of chemistry at the University of Bordeaux in 1838. Later that year he married Anne-Françoise Schrobilgen from Luxembourg. Laurent was not happy “in exile” in the provinces, but his seven years in Bordeaux were the most productive of his career.

The background to Laurent’s work

Laurent’s career as a chemist began just after the German chemist Friedrich Wöhler discovered the phenomenon of isomerism in 1828. The fact that two compounds of exactly the same composition could have very different properties drew attention to the importance of the arrangement of the atoms in the molecule. The phenomenon is particularly widespread in organic chemistry, where, for example, the substitution of chlorine for hydrogen can take place in many different positions in a carbon chain. Attempts to make sense of isomerism, and to differentiate between the floods of isomers that were discovered as techniques of organic analysis improved, dominated organic chemistry for the next 50 years. Laurent was involved from the beginning in the tortuous process of establishing the subtle differences between organic compounds that would allow their orderly classification. On the basis of such earlier work, the problem of differentiating between isomers was finally solved by the structural theory of the German chemist August Kekulé (1858) and the three-dimensional chemistry of the Dutch chemist Jacobus van ’t Hoff (1874).

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The theory of fundamental and derived nuclei

When Laurent began to work for Dumas in 1830, his master had just begun the first systematic investigation of chlorine substitution. Dumas expressed his results in terms of the then-dominant theory of electrochemical dualism, in which combination was conceived to be due to attraction between an electropositive component (the “radical”) and an electronegative component (in this case, chlorine). Radicals were seen as existing as stable units within organic substances. They were the compound counterparts of the simple elements of inorganic chemistry.

As Laurent pursued chlorine substitution further, particularly in the case of naphthalene, whose substitution derivatives he investigated exhaustively between 1830 and 1835, he found it necessary to reject Dumas’s stable hydrocarbon radicals. He saw substitution as involving the successive replacement of hydrogen by chlorine in the hydrocarbon “nucleus” of the molecule. Thus, the fundamental nucleus naphthalene, C₁₀H₈ in modern notation, yields the seven derived nuclei C₁₀H₇Cl, C₁₀H₆Cl₂, …, and C₁₀HCl₇, as well as C₁₀H₇Br, C₁₀H₇NO₂, and C₁₀H₆(NO₂)₂, and so forth.

Three important points emerged from Laurent’s nucleus theory of 1835, which reached its final form in 1844. First, though he firmly believed that any chemical reaction was so disruptive that the actual arrangement of atoms in the molecule could never be determined by the chemist, he insisted that analogous compounds (such as all the substitution derivatives of a given hydrocarbon) be given analogous formulas. Though his formulas were thus merely symbolic, they gave a firm foundation to his classification of organic compounds on the basis of the parent hydrocarbon. Kekulé later acknowledged that Laurent’s classification was “the forerunner and foundation of most subsequent systems”; the modern practice of considering all organic compounds as derived from hydrocarbons by substitution is ultimately credited to Laurent.

Second, Laurent drew attention to the stability of what is now called the carbon skeleton throughout a series of substitution reactions.

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Third, he was the first to realize that in derived nuclei, chlorine plays the part of hydrogen, for the chemical properties of the substituted compound are little different from the original and the chlorine so combined is unreactive. Electronegative chlorine fulfilling the functions of electropositive hydrogen was strictly forbidden by the electrochemical theory, and though Laurent’s view was scornfully dismissed by the Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius and the German chemist Justus Liebig, the two main arbiters of chemical orthodoxy in the 1830s, it helped to bring about the downfall of the electrochemical conception of organic combination. Laurent went on to distinguish between compounds where the activity of chlorine or oxygen was masked when substituted for hydrogen within the nucleus and those containing active elements outside the nucleus; for instance, compounds containing oxygen outside the nucleus would be acidic. Laurent’s nucleus theory anticipated the main points of Dumas’s theory of types, though Dumas angrily refused to acknowledge this, and the two became irreconcilable enemies.

Later life

Laurent was granted paid leave of absence from Bordeaux in 1845, and his leave of absence was renewed annually until he was appointed assayer to the Paris Mint in 1848. In addition to his official duties in inorganic analysis, he continued his work as one of the more accurate organic analysts of his generation. However, he produced few new theoretical ideas, and his influence on French chemists was limited, partly owing to the hostility of Dumas, who was an influential member of the French Academy of Sciences. Thus, the fact that in 1844 Laurent was one of the first chemists to embrace Avogadro’s law had no immediate influence. In 1850 he was the best-qualified candidate for the chair of chemistry at the Collège de France, but his appointment was vetoed by the Academy of Sciences, some of whose members were worried by his radical republican views in the tense atmosphere of conservative reaction that had set in after the Revolutions of 1848. His continued work at the mint in a damp converted cellar undermined his already weak health, and he died of tuberculosis at age 44.

Perhaps Laurent’s most important activity in the last 10 years of his life was his encouragement of his young friend Charles Gerhardt, fellow radical and fellow exile in the provinces. Gerhardt was to build on Laurent’s earlier work in his important theory of types of 1853. Laurent’s own ideas were summed up in his posthumously published Méthode de chimie (1854; Chemical Method, 1855), written to gather together the chemical ideas that had been scattered through his research papers and to act as a guide through “the labyrinth of organic chemistry.” This had a powerful, if belated, influence on the younger generation of German and English chemists.