- In full:
- Arnold Joseph Toynbee
- Born:
- April 14, 1889, London, England
- Died:
- October 22, 1975, York, North Yorkshire (aged 86)
- Subjects Of Study:
- civilization
- cyclicism
- philosophy of history
Arnold J. Toynbee
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Who was Arnold J. Toynbee?
Arnold J. Toynbee (1889–1975) was a renowned English historian and philosopher of history. His most significant work, the 12-volume A Study of History (1934–61), explored the cyclical patterns of the rise and fall of 26 civilizations throughout human history.
Toynbee argued that civilizations rise by creatively responding to challenges under the guidance of elite leaders, but decline when their leaders fail to adapt, leading to nationalism, militarism, and despotic rule. Unlike some other philosophers of history, Toynbee believed that the fall of civilizations was not inevitable, as they could continue to evolve in response to challenges. He saw spiritual forces, rather than economic ones, as the primary drivers of history.
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What was Arnold J. Toynbee known for?
Arnold J. Toynbee (1889–1975) was a British historian known for his 12-volume A Study of History (1934–61), which presented his philosophy of history. In it, he analyzed the cyclical rise and fall of 26 civilizations, concluding that civilizations rise by successfully responding to challenges under creative leaders. Civilizations decline when leaders fail to respond creatively and succumb to nationalism, militarism, and despotic minorities. Unlike some others, Toynbee believed the death of a civilization wasn't inevitable, as civilizations may or may not continue to respond to challenges. He saw history as shaped by spiritual forces, not economic ones.
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What is Toynbee's most famous work?
Arnold J. Toynbee was a British historian known for his 12-volume A Study of History (1934–61), which presented a philosophy of history based on the cyclical rise and fall of civilizations. In his Study, Toynbee examined 26 civilizations, concluding that they rose by successfully responding to challenges under the leadership of creative minorities. Civilizations declined when their leaders ceased to be creative, falling due to nationalism, militarism, and despotic minority rule. Unlike Oswald Spengler, Toynbee believed that the death of a civilization was not inevitable.
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How did Toynbee explain the rise and fall of civilizations?
Arnold J. Toynbee, a British historian, developed a philosophy of history based on the cyclical rise and fall of civilizations. In his Study of History (1934–61), Toynbee examined 26 civilizations, concluding that they ascend by successfully responding to challenges under creative leaders. Civilizations decline when leaders lose their creative response, leading to collapse due to nationalism, militarism, and despotic minority rule. Unlike Spengler, Toynbee believed civilizational death wasn't inevitable, hinging on continuous responses to challenges. He viewed history as shaped by spiritual forces, not economic ones like Marx.
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What does Toynbee mean by 'challenge and response'?
Arnold J. Toynbee, in his A Study of History, proposes that civilizations evolve through a cyclical process of challenge and response. According to Toynbee's theory, societies initially rise by successfully overcoming challenges under the guidance of creative leaders. These challenges can be environmental, social, or political, requiring innovative solutions and adaptations. However, civilizations decline when their leaders fail to respond creatively to new challenges. They succumb to nationalism, militarism, and the oppression of a despotic minority. Unlike Oswald Spengler, Toynbee believed that the demise of a civilization is not inevitable, as societies can continue to evolve by responding to successive challenges.
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How did Toynbee’s ideas influence later historians and thinkers?
Arnold J. Toynbee's philosophy of history, detailed in his 12-volume A Study of History, sparked considerable discussion regarding his analysis of the cyclical rise and fall of civilizations.
Toynbee's comparative study of civilizations challenged the idea of a single linear progression in history. Unlike Oswald Spengler, Toynbee suggested Western society might not be doomed and allowed for human free will and divine intervention, though critics found these qualifications inconsistent with his scientific approach. Despite criticism for relying on myths, metaphors, and a Christian moralist perspective, his work has been praised for stimulating historical research.
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Arnold J. Toynbee (born April 14, 1889, London, England—died October 22, 1975, York, North Yorkshire) was an English historian whose 12-volume A Study of History (1934–61) put forward a philosophy of history, based on an analysis of the cyclical development and decline of civilizations, that provoked much discussion.
Toynbee was a nephew of the 19th-century economist Arnold Toynbee. He was educated at Balliol College, Oxford (classics, 1911), and studied briefly at the British School at Athens, an experience that influenced the genesis of his philosophy about the decline of civilizations. In 1912 he became a tutor and fellow in ancient history at Balliol College, and in 1915 he began working for the intelligence department of the British Foreign Office. After serving as a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 he was appointed professor of Byzantine and modern Greek studies at the University of London. From 1921 to 1922 he was the Manchester Guardian correspondent during the Greco-Turkish War, an experience that resulted in the publication of The Western Question in Greece and Turkey (1922). In 1925 he became research professor of international history at the London School of Economics and director of studies at the Royal Institute of International Affairs in London.
Toynbee began his Study of History in 1922, inspired by seeing Bulgarian peasants wearing fox-skin caps like those described by Herodotus as the headgear of Xerxes’ troops. This incident reveals the characteristics that give his work its special quality—his sense of the vast continuity of history and his eye for its pattern, his immense erudition, and his acute observation.
In the Study Toynbee examined the rise and fall of 26 civilizations in the course of human history, and he concluded that they rose by responding successfully to challenges under the leadership of creative minorities composed of elite leaders. Civilizations declined when their leaders stopped responding creatively, and the civilizations then sank owing to the sins of nationalism, militarism, and the tyranny of a despotic minority. Unlike Spengler in his The Decline of the West, Toynbee did not regard the death of a civilization as inevitable, for it may or may not continue to respond to successive challenges. Unlike Karl Marx, he saw history as shaped by spiritual, not economic forces.
While the writing of the Study was underway, Toynbee produced numerous smaller works and served as director of foreign research of the Royal Institute of International Affairs (1939–43) and director of the research department of the Foreign Office (1943–46); he also retained his position at the London School of Economics until his retirement in 1956. A prolific writer, he continued to produce volumes on world religions, western civilization, classical history, and world travel throughout the 1950s and ’60s. After World War II Toynbee shifted his emphasis from civilization to the primacy of higher religions as historical protagonists. His other works include Civilization on Trial (1948), East to West: A Journey Round the World (1958), and Hellenism: The History of a Civilization (1959).
Toynbee has been severely criticized by other historians. In general, the critique has been leveled at his use of myths and metaphors as being of comparable value to factual data and at the soundness of his general argument about the rise and fall of civilizations, which relies too much on a view of religion as a regenerative force. Many critics complained that the conclusions he reached were those of a Christian moralist rather than of a historian. His work, however, has been praised as a stimulating answer to the specializing tendency of modern historical research.