Antigonus I Monophthalmus

Antigonus I Monophthalmus (born 382—died 301 bce, Ipsus, Phrygia, Asia Minor [now in Turkey]) was a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great who founded the Macedonian dynasty of the Antigonids (306–168 bce), becoming king in 306. An exceptional strategist and combat leader, he was also an astute ruler who cultivated the friendship of Athens and other Greek city-states.

Military campaigns

In 333 Alexander had appointed Antigonus satrap of Phrygia, and upon Alexander’s death he also received the governorship of Pamphylia and Lycia from the regent of the Macedonian empire, Perdiccas. He then formed an alliance against Perdiccas with Antipater, the governor of Macedonia, and with Ptolemy of Egypt, Lysimachus of Thrace, and Craterus (all of whom had served under Alexander). Perdiccas was murdered, and Antipater became regent of the empire. In 321 Antipater appointed Antigonus commander in chief of his army in Asia and sent him against Eumenes, the satrap of Cappadocia and an adherent of Perdiccas. Antigonus defeated Eumenes and then besieged him unsuccessfully in the mountain fortress Nora. Polyperchon succeeded Antipater as regent, and Antigonus joined forces against him with Cassander (Antipater’s son), Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Eumenes in 319. When Eumenes, his rival in Asia Minor (Anatolia), went over to Polyperchon, Antigonus defeated him with the aid of Seleucus and Peithon (the satraps of Babylonia and Media, respectively) at Gabiene. Then, wishing to eliminate all possible rivals, Antigonus had both Eumenes and Peithon executed; Seleucus escaped to Egypt.

Antigonus was now in complete control of Asia Minor, but Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander, and Seleucus allied themselves against him in the first coalition war (315–311) in an attempt to thwart his plan of reuniting Alexander’s empire. Antigonus occupied Syria and proclaimed himself regent. In order to win the support of the Greek city-states, whose resistance to subjugation presented the chief stumbling block to the formation of a Hellenistic monarchy, he announced to his assembled army that all the Greeks should be free, autonomous, and ungarrisoned. This political slogan was to be sounded again and again—almost immediately by Ptolemy and for a final time by the Romans in 196. With the aid of his officers in Greece, Antigonus drove out Cassander’s Macedonian forces of occupation there and formed the island cities in the Aegean into the League of the Islanders, preparatory to his invasion of Greece. His ally, the city of Rhodes, furnished him with the necessary fleet.

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While he was engaged in conquering Caria, his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, was defeated at Gaza by Ptolemy and Seleucus (312). Seleucus returned to his former province, Babylonia. In view of this new threat from the East, Antigonus decided to make peace with all of his adversaries except Seleucus. All of the diadochoi (Alexander’s successors) confirmed the existing boundaries and the freedom of the Greek cities. Antigonus, no longer regent but merely stratēgos (officer in charge) of the whole of Asia, was to rule in Syria and from the Hellespont to the Euphrates.

Activities in Greece

Ptolemy next attacked Cilicia, and the second coalition war (310–301) against Antigonus broke out. In Greece in 307, Antigonus’s son Demetrius ousted Demetrius of Phaleron, Cassander’s governor of Athens, and reestablished the old Athenian constitution. The grateful Athenians honoured Antigonus and Demetrius as divine saviours (theoi sōtēres). Cassander’s influence in Greece was now broken, and in 306 Demetrius defeated Ptolemy’s fleet near Salamis on the island of Cyprus and conquered the island. This victory gave Antigonus control of the Aegean, of the eastern Mediterranean, and of all of the Near East except Babylonia. The assembled army proclaimed him king, and his friends adorned him with the diadem. For his part, he appointed Demetrius king and co-regent and sent him the diadem. This was to become a traditional ceremony in the Hellenistic monarchy.

In 305, after Antigonus had vainly attacked Egypt, Ptolemy also assumed the title of king, and Cassander, Lysimachus, and Seleucus followed suit. The partition of Alexander’s empire into five states had now been formally established. In 305 Antigonus sent Demetrius to conquer Rhodes, which had refused him armed support against Ptolemy. After a year’s unsuccessful siege he concluded a peace treaty and an alliance with the island state, guaranteeing it autonomy and neutrality in his conflicts with Ptolemy. This concession was necessary because in the meantime Cassander had invaded Attica and was besieging Athens. Demetrius drove him out of central Greece, and the Athenians bestowed on him a new religious honour, synnaos (“having the same temple”) of the temple of the goddess Athena.

In 303 he occupied Corinth, Sicyon, and Argos in the Peloponnese, and Achaea, Elis, and almost all of Arcadia joined his side. In 302 Antigonus and Demetrius crowned their success by renewing the pan-Hellenic league, which Philip II of Macedonia had formed in 337. Ambassadors from all the Hellenic states—with the exception of Sparta, Messenia, and Thessaly—elected Antigonus and Demetrius protectors of the new league at Corinth. It was to be an “eternal” treaty, extending to the descendants of the kings. Each member state furnished a contingent of troops for a league army that was commanded by the kings or their deputies. The league was to ensure a general peace in Hellas, but first and foremost it was to aid Antigonus against Cassander.

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Final campaigns

Now at the zenith of his power, Antigonus demanded Cassander’s unconditional submission. He wanted possession of Macedonia, the native land of his dynasty, and to establish his dominion over Alexander’s former empire. The other diadochoi, however, warned by Cassander’s fate, now joined forces to attack the omnivorous old man. From Babylonia, Seleucus invaded Asia Minor, Ptolemy attacked Syria, and Lysimachus moved into the western part of Asia Minor. Docimus, the regent of Phrygia, and Phoenix, the stratēgos of Lycia, deserted Antigonus. He, in turn, recalled Demetrius, left his capital city, Antigoneia (which he had founded on the Orontes in 306), and crossed the Taurus Mountains. Lysimachus, who was waiting for Seleucus, avoided an engagement. In vain Antigonus sent a corps of raiders into Babylonia in order to divide his enemies’ forces. In 301 the united armies of Lysimachus and Seleucus engaged the forces of Antigonus and Demetrius at Ipsus in Phrygia. Demetrius made the error of pursuing the enemy’s cavalry too far, and as a result Antigonus, age 80, lost the battle and his life.

Antigonus had been an excellent strategist who, until then, had never lost a battle. He had a genuine admiration for Greek civilization. He founded several cities, especially in Asia Minor, and united several small communities into unitary, large centres: Lebedus (Lebedos) and Teos, for example. Several Greek artists graced his court; Apelles painted his portrait in profile because of his missing eye (the cause of which is unknown).