Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st earl of Shaftesbury

Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st earl of Shaftesbury (born July 22, 1621, Wimborne St. Giles, Dorset, England—died January 21, 1683, Amsterdam, Netherlands) was an English politician, a member of the Council of State (1653–54; 1659) during the Commonwealth, and a member of Charles II’s “Cabinet Council” and lord chancellor (1672–73). Seeking to exclude the Roman Catholic duke of York (the future James II) from the succession, he was ultimately charged with treason. Though acquitted, he fled into exile.

Early life and role in the Civil Wars

From his maternal grandfather, Sir Anthony Ashley, and his father, Sir John Cooper, Anthony inherited estates in Dorset and Wiltshire, and, although some were lost through litigations during his minority, his inheritance was large enough to enable him to contemplate early a career in politics. On February 25, 1639, he married Margaret, the daughter of Lord Coventry, Charles I’s lord keeper; this marriage ended with her death 10 years later. At only 18, he had been elected to the Short Parliament (April–May) of 1640, but his election to the Long Parliament of the same year was disputed and he was not allowed to take his seat.

Though the first Civil War broke out in 1642, Cooper did not take up arms for the king until the summer of 1643, and in February 1644 he went over to the side of Parliament, dissatisfied with the political and religious influences uppermost at the royalist court in Oxford (the king’s headquarters) at that time. He took an active part in the operations in Dorset in 1644.

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John Locke: Association with Shaftesbury

There is little evidence of his activities between 1645 and 1652, other than his marriage to Lady Frances Cecil, the earl of Exeter’s sister, in 1650, and that he became a member of a commission to aid a parliamentary committee that was to examine projects for law reform. It may have been this commission membership that secured his nomination to the Barebones Parliament (July–December) of 1653. In December 1653 he helped to persuade the more conservative majority of that Parliament to resign its powers to Oliver Cromwell, the victorious Puritan leader. As a result, he was appointed to the Council of State established by the Instrument of Government that set up the Protectorate—with Cromwell as Lord Protector—and elected to the first Parliament that met under its terms, in 1654. His association with Cromwell ceased at the end of that year, however, probably because he disliked a regime that seemed increasingly more military than parliamentary.

In 1655 (his second wife had died in 1654) he married his third wife, Margaret Spencer, the niece of the earl of Southampton, the leading Cavalier peer remaining in England after Charles’s execution, but there is no evidence that he positively favoured a royalist restoration until 1660, when every other possible political alternative had proved unsuccessful. On May 8 he was appointed one of the 12 commissioners sent by the House of Commons to Holland to invite Charles II to return, and, after Charles had done so, Cooper was admitted to Charles’s Privy Council.

Office under Charles II

From 1660 to 1673 he held office under Charles II, becoming Baron Ashley in 1661 and earl of Shaftesbury in 1672. During this period his intelligence, his capacity for business, and his ability as a speaker in the House of Lords were generally recognized, but because of his equivocal political past he was at first given only the then-minor office of chancellor of the Exchequer. By the end of the 1660s, he had been admitted to the king’s “Cabinet Council,” and in 1672 he became lord chancellor—the last to preside in Chancery with no formal legal training other than a short spell in Lincoln’s Inn (one of the four legal schools and societies).

His name has been associated with three particular acts of policy between 1670 and 1673: the Stop of the Exchequer of 1672, which by suspending the repayment of debt for 12 months gave Charles the use of his revenue for naval preparations; the Declaration of Indulgence of the same year; and the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–74). The first of these is now known to have been the responsibility of Sir Thomas Clifford; the second reflected his consistent desire to secure toleration for Dissenters (religious groups that did not belong to the Church of England), though the king and Clifford intended it primarily as relief for Roman Catholics; the third was, in Shaftesbury’s mind, a natural continuation of the commercial rivalry with the Dutch.

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Earlier, in 1670, he signed a sham Anglo-French treaty supposedly to reduce the commercial supremacy of the Dutch, but he was unaware that the previous secret Treaty of Dover had provided for Charles to declare himself a Catholic, a prospect he could never have condoned. In 1673 he supported the first Test Act, designed to exclude Catholics from office, and opposed the marriage of the king’s brother and heir, James, duke of York, a Catholic, to another Catholic. Later in that same year, Charles, feeling that he could no longer trust his chancellor, dismissed him.

In the years that followed, Shaftesbury gradually became the most formidable politician in the Whig opposition, or “Country Party,” against the king and his lord treasurer, the duke of Leeds, until in 1678 a certain Titus Oates gave information about an alleged extensive Catholic plot to kill Charles and put James on the throne. This gave Shaftesbury his first real chance to acquire a wide base of support. Though he had not contrived the tale—nor did he prompt Oates to come forward at first—he realized he could exploit the situation to his own advantage. In the ensuing national panic, Shaftesbury took control of the political chaos, organized an elaborate party network, exercised great control over elections, and acquired a large following in Parliament.

The Exclusion Bill

His strategy was primarily aimed at securing the passage of the Exclusion Bill, which would keep the Catholic James from the throne, using Charles’s illegitimate son, the duke of Monmouth, a puppet of Shaftesbury, as a possible claimant to the throne. Although the bill passed in the Commons, it was rejected by the Lords because of the king’s strong opposition. Shaftesbury rode to the next Parliament, at Oxford on March 21, 1681, with an armed following, but Charles dissolved it within a week, leaving him helpless, without a following, and, as the general panic dissolved, without a cause.

He was seized on July 2, 1681, and committed to the Tower of London, but he was acquitted of the trumped-up charge of treason by a London grand jury in November. Shortly before the trial the most famous attack on him, John Dryden’s satire Absalom and Achitophel, appeared. In the absence of another Parliament, Shaftesbury could do little more. After privately discussing the possibility of rising against the government, he fled the country in November 1682 and died in Holland in January 1683.

Shaftesbury was a man of intelligence, charm, and wide and usually enlightened interests, including those related to colonization. In 1663 he was given a grant, along with seven others, of the province of Carolina in North America and was appointed president of the Council of Trade and Foreign Plantations from 1672 to 1674. The philosopher John Locke, who helped him to draft the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina and superintended the surgical operation that saved his life in 1668, was a member of his household from 1667 to 1675. Recent scholarly work on Locke has stressed the importance of his connection with Shaftesbury and has modified the impression of the earl left by Dryden’s partisan satires and other unfavourable, sometimes unjust, evaluations through history.