• Bīdrī ware
• jewelry

  / Indian
• metalwork

  / South Asia
• musical performance

  / South Asia

• Karnatic temple architecture
• North Indian temple architecture
• Shah Jahan period architecture
• South Indian temple architecture

• ghaṭa-pallava
• patralatā

• bāndhanī work
• chikan work
• kashmir shawl
• kimkhwāb
• patola
• pichhwai

Literature (Sanskrit, Pāli, and Prākrit)

The old literature of Southeast Asia has been more extensively described than any of the modern literatures. Though antiquated, Moriz Winternitz, Geschichte der indischen litteratur, 3 vol. (1908–22; Eng. trans., A History of Indian Literature, 2nd ed. 1959–67), is still very useful. So is Arthur B. Keith, A History of Sanskrit Literature (1928, reprinted 1956), which, however, does not include the Sanskrit theatre. For the old literature of the Veda, Arthur A. MacDonnell, A History of Sanskrit Literature (1900), remains very helpful as a survey. A full inventory of the literature is given by S.N. Das Gupta and S.K. De, A History of Sanskrit Literature, Classical Period, 2nd ed. (1962). The epochal material is best treated by Edward W. Hopkins, The Great Epic of India (1901). On the Sanskrit play specifically, the study by the French scholar Sylvain Levi, Le Théâtre indien (1890), remains an important contribution. The best introduction to the narrative literature is to be found in Charles H. Tawney (trans.), The Ocean of Story, ed. by Norman M. Penzer, 10 vol. (1923–28, reprinted 1968). George L. Hart, The Relation Between Tamil and Classical Sanskrit Literature (1976), is an argument that the two literatures stem from a common source.

Modern Indian literatures

The literatures in the modern Indian languages are bibliographically underrepresented in English. For some of them the best sources are to be found written in those languages themselves. The following bibliography must confine itself to works written in more accessible languages. (Hindi): A good though incomplete inventory of the older literature in Hindi and Hindustani is found in Joseph Garcin de Tassy, Histoire de la littérature hindouie et hindoustanie, 2nd ed., 3 vol. (1870–71, reprinted 1968). A useful guide up to its date is Edwin Greaves, A Sketch of Hindi Literature (1918). A survey of the more modern literature in Hindi is R.A. Dwiveldi, A Critical Survey of Hindi Literature (1966). (Assamese): Among the few works available is B.K. Barua, Assamesè Literature (1941) and A History of Assamese Literature (1965). (Bengali): The best extensive introduction to the literature in Bengali is that of Sukumar Sen, History of Bengali Literature (1960). Another useful source is J.C. Ghosh, Bengali Literature (1948). (Marathi): Many works on Marathi literature are written in Marathi itself. A good guide is G.C. Bhate, History of Modern Marathi Literature, 1800–1938 (1939). (Gujarati): Little is written in English on Gujarati literature. To be recommended is K.M. Munshi, Gujarāt and Its Literature from Early Times to 1852, 3rd ed. (1967). A useful older study is K.M. Jhaveri, Milestones in Gujarati Literature (1914). (Punjabi): A good survey of Punjabi is given by Mohan Singh, An Introduction to Panjabi Literature (1951). For information about literature in the smaller Indo-Aryan languages, see the symposium of the All-India Writers’ Conference, Writers in Free India (1950). (Muslim contributions): The best short introduction to the cultural and intellectual life of the Moslems of the subcontinent is Aziz Ahmad, An Intellectual History of Islam in India (1969). A comprehensive survey of the literature in Urdu produced in South India, especially in the medieval kingdoms of Bijāpur and Golconda and in the later state Hyderābād is the Urdu work Dekan men Urdu by Nasirruddin Hashmi (1963). A study of the convention of classical Urdu poetry in the light of the writings of three Urdu poets of 18th-century Delhi is Ralph Russell and Khurshidul Islam, Three Mughal Poets: Mir, Sauda, Mir Hasan (1968). The latest and most comprehensive survey of literature produced in Persian in various countries, including India and Pakistan, is Jan Rypka, History of Iranian Literature (1968). A useful introduction is Muhammad Sadiq, A History of Urdu Literature (1964). (Tamil): Kamil V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature (1974), is an introduction to and critical study of the literature. Much useful information is found in Xavier S. Thani Nayagam, A Reference Guide to Tamil Studies (1966). Fuller treatment is given in C. and H. Jesudasan, A History of Tamil Literature (1961). Especially recommended are also T.P. Meenakshisundaram, A History of Tamil Literature (1965); and J.M. Somasundaram Pillai, A History of Tamil Literature with Texts and Translations from the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. (1968). A good account of Telugu literature is P. Chenchayya and R.M. Bhujanga Rao Bhadur, A History of Telugu Literature (1928). More recent is P.T. Raju, Telugu Literature (1944); and Gidugu Venkaja Sitapati, History of Telugu Literature (1968). Very little has been written on Kannada literature. Mention can be made of the older Edward P. Rice, A History of Kanarese Literature, 2nd ed. rev. and enl. (1921); and of H. Thipperuda Swamy, The Vīraśaiva Saints (1968). The literature in Malayalam is sketched in K.M. George, A Survey of Malayalam Literature (1968). Further mention can be made of K.K. Nair, A History of Malayalam Literature (1971); and of P.K. Parameswaran Nair, History of Malayalam Literature (Eng. trans. 1967). Finally, among the very few books in English on the literature of Ceylon (Sri Lanka), prominent mention can be made of Charles Edmund Godakumbura, The Literature of Ceylon (1963).

Music

Arnold A. Bake, “The Music of India,” in The New Oxford History of Music, vol. 1 (1957), a general chapter on Indian music dealing with the philosophical background, Vedic chant, the ancient musical system, the modern classical system, and musical instruments; Elise B. Barnett, “Special Bibliography: The Art Music of India,” Ethnomusicology, 14:278–312 (1970), a listing of books and articles on Indian music, published since 1959, which includes some publications on folk and religious music, dance, and drama; Sudhibhushan Bhattacharya, Ethnomusicology and India (1968), a synchronic approach attempting to relate folk, tribal, religious, and classical music in terms of the cultural background—includes outline notations in Indian sargam; Alain Danielou, The Rāga-s of Northern Indian Music (1968), an individualistic interpretation of modern North Indian ragas, based partly on ancient theory; B.C. Deva, Psychoacoustics of Music and Speech (1967), a collection of articles on various aspects of music and speech, with emphasis on acoustics and thescientific study of Indian music; Arthur H. Fox-Strangways, The Music of Hindostan (1914, reprinted 1965), a work of wide scope including discussion of Vedic chant, folk music, and modern Indian classical music (includes notations in Western staff and analogies with Western music); O.C. Gangoly, Rāgas and Rāginīs, 2 vol. (1934–35, reprinted 1948), a historical study that traces the systems of classifying ragas in Indian musical treatises, including a discussion of the time-theory of ragas as well as their iconography; Nazir A. Jairazbhoy, The Rāgas of North Indian Music (1971), a technical work dealing with the structure and evolution of North Indian ragas (includes a 45 r.p.m. record of raga demonstrations performed on the sitar by Vilayat Khan, and extensive notations in Western staff and Indian sargam); Baburao Joshi and A. Lobo, Introducing Indian Music (n.d.), a series of four long-playing records, including musical examples and commentary, illustrating the main features of North Indian classical music, with accompanying booklet; Walter Kaufmann, The Rāgas of North India (1968), description and notations, in Western staff, of about 230 ragas of modern North Indian music; Allen Keese, The Sitar Book (1968), an elementary guide to the sitar, with some description of playing techniques, musical exercises, and gats in ten ragas; Herbert A. Popley, The Music of India, 3rd ed. (1970), a general work including discussion of historical background, scale, raga, tala, musical form, and instruments, with notations in Western staff and Indian sargam; Harold S. Powers, “Indian Music and the English Language: A Review Essay,” Ethnomusicology, 9:1–12 (1965), a survey of the most important literature on Indian music written in the English language; and “An Historical and Comparative Approach to the Classification of Rāgas (with an Appendix on Ancient Indian Tunings),” in Selected Reports of the Instiute of Ethnomusicology, UCLA, 1:1–78 (1970), a scholarly monograph that attempts to show the relationship between North and South Indian ragas that bear the same name but now differ in scale—includes material on ancient Indian music and gives many musical examples in Western staff; Swami Prajnananda, A History of Indian Music, vol. 1 (1963), a technical work dealing with the origins and the music of the ancient period; P. Sambamoorthy, South Indian Music, 5 vol. (1958–69), a comprehensive work covering many aspects of South Indian musical theory, both synchronically and diachronically; Ravi Shankar, My Music, My Life (1969), a general book combining autobiographical and biographical material with a discussion of Indian music history, theory, and instruments, including a manual for the sitar. Bonnie C. Wade, Music in India: The Classical Traditions (1979), a discussion of performance, theory, and basic instruments of both the North and South; M.R. Guatam, The Musical Heritage of India (1981), a history with emphasis on classical traditions of both the North and South; Wim van der Meer, Hindustani Music in the Twentieth Century (1980), an introduction with emphasis on vocal music; Daniel M. Neuman, The Life of Music in North India (1980), an analysis of the place in society of the musician.

Dance and theatre

The main source book of Indian classical dance and theatre is the Nātya-śāstra, ascribed to Bharata Muni, trans. by Manmohan Ghosh, 2 vol. (1950–61), which deals with ceremonies, gesture language, architecture, production styles, makeup, and costumes. A.K. Coomaraswamy, The Dance of Shiva, rev. ed. (1957), brings alive the philosophy and aesthetics of Hindu dance. For general understanding of classical dance forms and techniques, see Rina Singha and Reginald Massey, Indian Dances (1967), which includes semiclassical styles, modern ballet, and biographical notes on dancers and gurus. Faubion Bowers, The Dance in India (1953), is a fascinating description of the four major classical dances. K. Bharatha Iyer, Kathakali (1955), is perhaps the best work on this dance-drama, with detailed descriptions of characters, historical background, and interpretation of dramatic symbols, with photographs and line drawings. Kapila Vatsyayan, Classical Indian Dance in Literature and the Arts (1968), surveys dance as found in temple sculpture, the plastic arts, and literature—a scholarly work with photos. For tribal dances and ceremonies of Central India, see Verrier Elwin, The Muria and Their Ghotul (1947; abridged ed., The Kingdom of the Young, 1968). For dramatic forms, production techniques, and classical rules the best source book is also the Nātya-śāstra, ascribed to Bharata Muni, op. cit. Arthur B. Keith, Sanskrit Drama in Its Origin, Development, Theory and Practice (1924, reprinted 1959), remains a standard scholarly critical work for comparative analysis of Sanskrit plays. P. Lal, Great Sanskrit Plays (1964) are actable transcreations in crisp modern English. A delightfully-written survey is Faubion Bowers, Theatre in the East (1956), which puts Indian dance and theatre in the larger perspective of South Asia with vivid and perceptive descriptions. For a general survey of classical, folk, and modern drama with sidelights on opera and ballet, illustrated by photographs and sketches, see Balwant Gargi, Theatre in India (1962). Hemendra Nath Das Gupta, The Indian Stage, 4 vol. (1934–44), deals mainly with the growth of Bengali theatres, actors, and productions in exhaustive detail with reproductions of period notebooks and papers. Balwant Gargi, Folk Theatre in India (1966), is an eyewitness account of religious, secular, and masked dramas in villages, with over 100 photographs and line sketches. See also J.C. Mathur, Drama in Rural India (1964). Beryl De Zoete, Dance and Magic Drama in Ceylon (1957), is a vivid account of rituals and magical masked dances in a diary form of day-to-day performances. E.R. Sarachchandra, The Folk Drama of Ceylon, 2nd ed. (1966), is a scholarly work on the development and background of Sinhalese folk dramas and cults of exorcism. For puppets and masks, see two small pamphlets: J. Tilakasir, “Puppetry in Ceylon” and Siri Gunasinghe, “Masks of Ceylon” (both published by the Department of Cultural Affairs, Ceylon, 1962). For the history of Kolam and description of various characters see O. Pertold, “The Ceremonial Dances of the Sinhalese,” Archiv Orientální, vol. 2 (1930). For Devil Dances and their interpretation in the light of witchcraft rituals, see Dandris De Silva Gunaratna, “Demonology and Witchcraft in Ceylon,” J. Ceylon Brch. R. Asiat. Soc., vol. 4, no. 13 (1861); Paul Wirz, Exorzismus und Heilkunde auf Ceylon (1941); Rachel Van M. Baumer and James R. Brandon (eds.), Sanskrit Drama in Performance (1981), essays on Ancient Indian theatrical performance.

Visual arts (General works)

Vincent A. Smith, A History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon, 3rd ed. rev. and enl. (1962); A.K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art (1927, reprinted 1965); and Benjamin Rowland, Art and Architecture of India, 3rd ed. rev. (1967), are general introductions with good bibliographies. A.K. Coomaraswamy, Figures of Speech or Figures of Thought (1946), and Tranformation of Nature in Art (1934, reprinted 1956), contain important essays which discuss Indian aesthetic theories from the traditional point of view. A clear classification of Hindu images with particular reference to south India has been made in T.A. Gopinatha Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography, 2 vol. in 4 (1914–16, reprinted 1968); and J.N. Banerjea, The Development of Hindu Iconography, 2nd ed. rev. and enl. (1956), is an analytical introduction to the subject. N.K. Bhattasali, Iconography of Buddhist and Brahmanical Sculptures in the Dacca Museum (1929); Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, The Indian Buddhist Iconography, 2nd ed. (1958); and Alfred Foucher, Étude sur l’iconographie bouddhique de l’Inde, 2 vol. (1900–05), are important studies of Buddhist iconography. A.K. Coomaraswamy, Yaksas, 2 vol. (1928–31), is a masterly study of early iconography. Heinrich Zimmer, Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization (1946, reprinted 1963), discusses some important symbols of Indian art. Good collections of photographs are in James Burgess, The Ancient Monuments, Temples and Sculptures of India, 2 vol. (1897–1911); A.K. Coomaraswamy, Viśvakarma (1912); Stella Kramrisch, The Art of India (1954); and Heinrich Zimmer, The Art of Indian Asia, 2 vol. (1955).

Architecture

James Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, rev. ed., 2 vol. (1910, reprinted 1967); Percy Brown, Indian Architecture, 2 vol., 5th ed. (1965); and S.K. Saraswati, “Architecture,” in R.C. Masumdar (ed.), History and Culture of the Indian People, vol. 3 and 5 (1954–57), are standard works that survey the entire history of Indian architecture. James Fergusson and James Burgess, The Cave Temples of India (1880, reprinted 1969), is a comprehensive account of rock-cut architecture. Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, 2 vol. (1946), is concerned with principles and symbolism, and Krishna Deva, Temples of North India (1969), presents a synoptic view of the various north Indian styles. G. Jouveau-Dubreuil, Archéologie du sud de l’Inde, 2 vol. (1914), analyses the south Indian style. K.R. Srinvasan, Cave Temples of the Pallavas (1964); and Arthur H. Longhurst, Pallava Architecture, 3 vol. (1924–30), are important studies of early south Indian architecture. Sir John Marshall, “The Monuments of Muslim India,” in The Cambridge History of India, vol. 3, pp. 568–640 (1928, reprinted 1965); and Percy Brown, “Monuments of the Mughal Period,” ibid., vol. 4, pp. 523–576 (1937, reprinted 1963), are important essays on Islamic architecture in India. See also Elizabeth S. Merklinger, Indian Islamic Architecture: The Deccan 1347–1686 (1981).

Sculpture

S.K. Sarasvati, A Survey of Indian Sculpture (1957); and Stella Kramrisch, Indian Sculpture (1933), discuss the broad historical and stylistic trends. Ludwig Bachhofer, Early Indian Sculpture (1929), is a fine stylistic analysis of sculptures from the third century bc to the third century ad. The classic work on Gandhāra art is Alfred Foucher, L’Art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra, 2 vol. (1905–41), though several of its conclusions are no longer tenable. Sir John Marshall, Taxila, 3 vol. (1951), discusses works recovered from that site; and Harold Ingholt, Gandharan Art in Pakistan (1957, reprinted 1971), provides excellent photographic documentation. R.D. Banerji, The Age of the Imperial Guptas (1933), has a general discussion of the Gupta style; D.R. Sahni, Catalogue of the Museum of Archaeology at Sārnāth (1914), contains information of interest on the school of Sārnāth. Eliky Zannas, Khajurāho (1960); K.C. Panigrahi, Archaeological Remains at Bhubaneswar (1961); and R.D. Banerji, Eastern Indian School of Medieval Sculpture (1933), are monographs on schools of north Indian medieval sculpture. A.H. Longhurst, op. cit.; and K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Cōlas, 2nd ed. rev. (1955), contain information on the south Indian medieval styles. C. Sivaramamurti, South Indian Bronzes (1963); P.R. Srinivasan, Bronzes of South India (1963); Douglas E. Barrett, Early Cōla Bronzes (1965), are important studies of south Indian bronzes; Frederick M. Asher, The Art of Eastern India: 300–800 (1980), a study of the pre-Pala period.

Painting

In considering the published literature it is important to remember that the study of Indian painting, confined to a limited number of scholars, is of comparatively recent growth, and is therefore full of controversies and uncertainties which keep shifting with the discovery of fresh materials. The standard work on Ajanta is Ghulam Yazdani, Ajanta, 4 vol. (1930–55); and on the western Indian style, Moti Chandra, Jain Miniature Paintings from Western India (1949). Much interesting information on the period of transition to the Rajasthani and Mughal styles has been brought together in Karl J. Khandalavala and Moti Chandra, New Documents of Indian Painting (1969). The Mughal school has been ably presented in Percy Brown, Indian Painting under the Mughals, A.D. 1550 to A.D. 1750 (1924); and Stuart C. Welch, The Art of Mughal India (1964). Douglas E. Barrett, Painting of the Deccan, XVI–XVII Century (1958), is a brief introduction to the subject. The main publication on the Company style is Mildred and William G. Archer, Indian Painting for the British, 1770–1880 (1955). The classic work on Pahari and Rajasthani painting is A.K. Coomaraswamy’s pioneering Rajput Painting, 2 vol. (1916). Fresh discoveries which have considerably changed the understanding of its history are summarized in Karl Khandalavala, Moti Chandra, and Pramod Chandra, Miniature Painting: A Catalogue of the Exhibition of the Sri Motichand Khajanchi Collection (1960). Moti Chandra, Mewar Painting in the Seventeenth Century (1957); William G. Archer, Indian Painting in Bundi and Kotah (1959); Pramod Chandra, Bundi Painting (1959); Eric Dickinson and Karl Khandalavala, Kishangarh Painting (1959); William G. Archer, Central Indian Painting (1958); and Anand Krishna, Malwa Painting (1963), are informative summaries of the growing knowledge of the various schools of Rājasthān. The standard work, illustrated copiously, on the Pahari style is Karl Khandalavala, Pahārī Miniature Painting (1958), and different in its account from William G. Archer, Indian Painting in the Punjab Hills (1952). Books which cover most of the schools and are profusely illustrated include N.C. Mehta, Studies in Indian Painting (1926); William G. Archer, Indian Miniatures (1960); Robert Skelton, Indian Miniatures from the XVth to the XIXth Centuries (1961); Douglas E. Barrett and Basil Gray, Painting of India (1963); and Stuart C. Welch and Milo C. Beach, Gods, Thrones and Peacocks: Northern Indian Painting from Two Traditions, Fifteenth to Nineteenth Centuries (1965). (Ceylon): Standard works on Sinhalese art are Senerat Paranavitana, The Stūpa in Ceylon (1946), Art and Architecture of Ceylon: Polonnaruva Period (1954), and Ceylon: Paintings from Temple, Shrine and Rock (1957). Moti Chandra, Studies in Early Indian Painting (1975), covers the 5th through 16th centuries; Calambur Sivaramamurti, The Art of India (1977), covering all types of art with 1175 illustrations; Stuart C. Welch, Room for Wonder: Indian Painting During the British Period, 1760–1880 (1978), an exhibition catolog with detailed comments on 125 illustrations.

Decorative arts

Scholarly literature on the decorative arts in India is scanty and mainly in learned journals. The Journal of Indian Art and Industries (1886–1916) is the most important and contains numerous pioneering studies. Sir George Watt, Indian Art at Delhi (1903); and Sir George Birdwood, The Industrial Arts of India, 2 vol. (1880), are for the most part descriptive texts emphasizing the technical aspects of the decorative arts as they had survived up to the closing years of the 19th century. John Irwin, “Textiles and the Minor Arts,” in Leigh Ashton (ed.), The Art of India and Pakistan, pp. 201–237 (1950), is a brief historical survey of the subject. Moti Chandra, “Ancient Indian Ivories,” Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, no. 6, pp. 4–63 (1957–59), is a monograph on the history of Indian ivory carving. Thomas H. Hendley, Asian Carpets (1905), treats Indian examples in the important collections of the Maharaja of Jaipur. George P. Baker, Calico Painting and Printing in the East Indies in the XVIIth and XVIIIth Centuries (1921), is the most important work on the subject; Wilbraham Egerton, An Illustrated Handbook of Indian Arms (1880), catalogs and describes the wide range and achievement of the armourer’s craft.