Ancient Greek literature
Quick Summary
Ancient Greek literature, though much has been lost, is foundational to Western literary tradition. It is broadly divided into three periods: Archaic (to the end of the 6th century BCE), Classical (5th and 4th centuries BCE), and Hellenistic and Greco-Roman (3rd century BCE onward).1
In the Archaic period, poetry, intended for singing or recitation, emerged. Early works focused on myth, with epic poems like Homer's Iliad and Odyssey establishing literary conventions. Lyric poetry also developed, with poets like Sappho and Alcaeus exploring personal themes. Tragedy and comedy originated in this era, linked to the worship of Dionysus.1
The Classical period saw the creation of true tragedy by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, exploring profound human and divine themes. Aristophanes led in Old Comedy, satirizing public life. Prose literature matured with historians like Herodotus and Thucydides, and philosophers Plato and Aristotle, whose works profoundly shaped Western thought.2
The Hellenistic and Greco-Roman periods saw Greek become a common language across Alexander the Great's empire. Literature, often supported by patronage, focused on polished craft and erudition, with New Comedy shifting to everyday life and the development of prose fiction and rhetoric.34
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biographyCharacter sketches…contrasting pairs of biographies, one Greek and one Roman, appeared; there followed within a brief span of years the Lives of the Caesars, by the Roman emperor Hadrian’s librarian Suetonius. These works established a quite subtle mingling of character sketch with chronological narrative that has ever since been the dominant…
Read More…contrasting pairs of biographies, one Greek and one Roman, appeared; there followed within a brief span of years the Lives of the Caesars, by the Roman emperor Hadrian’s librarian Suetonius. These works established a quite subtle mingling of character sketch with chronological narrative that has ever since been the dominant…
Read More- biographyWestern literature
In the Western world, biographical literature can be said to begin in the 5th century bce with the poet Ion of Chios, who wrote brief sketches of such famous contemporaries as Pericles and Sophocles. It continued throughout the classical period for a thousand…
Read MoreIn the Western world, biographical literature can be said to begin in the 5th century bce with the poet Ion of Chios, who wrote brief sketches of such famous contemporaries as Pericles and Sophocles. It continued throughout the classical period for a thousand…
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encyclopaediaEarly developmentThe Greek approach was to record the spoken word. The Romans, on the other hand, aimed to epitomize existing knowledge in readable form. Their first known effort is the Praecepta ad filium (“Advice to His Son”; c. 183 bce), a series of letters (now lost) written…
Read MoreThe Greek approach was to record the spoken word. The Romans, on the other hand, aimed to epitomize existing knowledge in readable form. Their first known effort is the Praecepta ad filium (“Advice to His Son”; c. 183 bce), a series of letters (now lost) written…
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epitaphAncient Greek epitaphs are often of considerable literary interest, deep and tender in feeling, rich and varied in expression, and epigrammatic in form. They are usually in elegiac verse, though many of the later epitaphs are in prose.
Read MoreAncient Greek epitaphs are often of considerable literary interest, deep and tender in feeling, rich and varied in expression, and epigrammatic in form. They are usually in elegiac verse, though many of the later epitaphs are in prose.
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fable, parable, and allegoryDiversity of media…and in the drama of Classical Greece both comedy and tragedy, by preserving ritual forms, lean toward allegory. Old Comedy, as represented by the majority of plays by Aristophanes, contains a curious blending of elements—allusions to men of the day, stories suggesting ideas other than the obvious literal sense, religious…
Read More…and in the drama of Classical Greece both comedy and tragedy, by preserving ritual forms, lean toward allegory. Old Comedy, as represented by the majority of plays by Aristophanes, contains a curious blending of elements—allusions to men of the day, stories suggesting ideas other than the obvious literal sense, religious…
Read More- fable, parable, and allegoryThe Greeks
Hellenic tradition after Homer stands in sharp contrast to this concentration on the fulfilling of a divine plan. The analytic, essentially scientific histories of Herodotus and Thucydides precluded much confident belief in visionary providence. The Greeks rather believed history to be structured in cycles, as…
Read MoreHellenic tradition after Homer stands in sharp contrast to this concentration on the fulfilling of a divine plan. The analytic, essentially scientific histories of Herodotus and Thucydides precluded much confident belief in visionary providence. The Greeks rather believed history to be structured in cycles, as…
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history of MesopotamiaThe classical and medieval views of Mesopotamia; its rediscovery in modern timesOf the Greeks, Herodotus of Halicarnassus (5th century bce, a contemporary of Xerxes I and Artaxerxes I) was the first to report on “Babylon and the rest of Assyria”; at that date the Assyrian empire had been overthrown for more than 100 years. The Athenian Xenophon took…
Read MoreOf the Greeks, Herodotus of Halicarnassus (5th century bce, a contemporary of Xerxes I and Artaxerxes I) was the first to report on “Babylon and the rest of Assyria”; at that date the Assyrian empire had been overthrown for more than 100 years. The Athenian Xenophon took…
Read More- light verse
The Greeks were among the first to practice light verse, examples of which may be found in the Greek Anthology. Such Roman poets as Catullus, singing of his love’s sparrow, and Horace, inviting friends to share his wine, set patterns in light poetry that were followed…
Read MoreThe Greeks were among the first to practice light verse, examples of which may be found in the Greek Anthology. Such Roman poets as Catullus, singing of his love’s sparrow, and Horace, inviting friends to share his wine, set patterns in light poetry that were followed…
Read More - romanceThe component elements
…are sometimes known as the Greek romances—narrative works in prose by Greek writers from the 1st century bc to the 3rd century ad. The first known, the fragmentary Ninus romance, in telling the story of the love of Ninus, mythical founder of Nineveh, anticipates the medieval roman d’antiquité. A number…
Read More…are sometimes known as the Greek romances—narrative works in prose by Greek writers from the 1st century bc to the 3rd century ad. The first known, the fragmentary Ninus romance, in telling the story of the love of Ninus, mythical founder of Nineveh, anticipates the medieval roman d’antiquité. A number…
Read More - Lucian
…180, Athens [Greece]) was an ancient Greek rhetorician, pamphleteer, and satirist.
Read More…180, Athens [Greece]) was an ancient Greek rhetorician, pamphleteer, and satirist.
Read More - satireHistorical definitions
…although he had read the Greek dramatist Aristophanes and was familiar with a number of Greek forms that one would call satiric. But the Greeks had no specific word for satire, and by satura (which meant originally something like “medley” or “miscellany” and from which comes the English satire) Quintilian…
Read More…although he had read the Greek dramatist Aristophanes and was familiar with a number of Greek forms that one would call satiric. But the Greeks had no specific word for satire, and by satura (which meant originally something like “medley” or “miscellany” and from which comes the English satire) Quintilian…
Read More - satireDrama
…doses than in the full-blown Aristophanic manner. In Elizabethan England, Ben Jonson wrote plays that he called “comicall satyres”—Every Man out of His Humour, Poetaster—and there are substantial elements of satire in Shakespeare’s plays, some in the comedies but, more impressively, a dark and bitter satire in
Read More…doses than in the full-blown Aristophanic manner. In Elizabethan England, Ben Jonson wrote plays that he called “comicall satyres”—Every Man out of His Humour, Poetaster—and there are substantial elements of satire in Shakespeare’s plays, some in the comedies but, more impressively, a dark and bitter satire in
Read More - short storyThe Greeks
The early Greeks contributed greatly to the scope and art of short fiction. As in India, the moralizing animal fable was a common form; many of these tales were collected as Aesop’s fables, the first known collection of which dates to the 4th century…
Read MoreThe early Greeks contributed greatly to the scope and art of short fiction. As in India, the moralizing animal fable was a common form; many of these tales were collected as Aesop’s fables, the first known collection of which dates to the 4th century…
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- dramatic literatureDramatic expression
…nonrealistic aural and visual devices: Greek tragic choric speech provided a philosophical commentary upon the action, which at the same time drew the audience lyrically into the mood of the play. In the drama of India, a verse accompaniment made the actors’ highly stylized system of symbolic gestures of head…
Read More…nonrealistic aural and visual devices: Greek tragic choric speech provided a philosophical commentary upon the action, which at the same time drew the audience lyrically into the mood of the play. In the drama of India, a verse accompaniment made the actors’ highly stylized system of symbolic gestures of head…
Read More - dramatic literatureWestern theory
…what he observed—that a typical Greek tragedy had a single plot and action that lasts one day; he made no mention at all of unity of place. Neoclassical critics of the 17th century, however, codified these discussions into rules.
Read More…what he observed—that a typical Greek tragedy had a single plot and action that lasts one day; he made no mention at all of unity of place. Neoclassical critics of the 17th century, however, codified these discussions into rules.
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comedy…began with Aristotle in ancient Greece of the 4th century bce and persists through the present, holds that it is primarily concerned with humans as social beings, rather than as private persons, and that its function is frankly corrective. The comic artist’s purpose is to hold a mirror up to…
Read More…began with Aristotle in ancient Greece of the 4th century bce and persists through the present, holds that it is primarily concerned with humans as social beings, rather than as private persons, and that its function is frankly corrective. The comic artist’s purpose is to hold a mirror up to…
Read More- didascaly
…training of the chorus in ancient Greek drama. The word is from the Greek didaskalía, “teaching or instruction.” The Greek plural noun didaskaliai (“instructions”) came to refer to records of dramatic performances, containing names of authors and dates, in the form of the original inscriptions or as later published by…
Read More…training of the chorus in ancient Greek drama. The word is from the Greek didaskalía, “teaching or instruction.” The Greek plural noun didaskaliai (“instructions”) came to refer to records of dramatic performances, containing names of authors and dates, in the form of the original inscriptions or as later published by…
Read More - fabula palliata
…were translations or adaptations of Greek New Comedy. The name derives from the pallium, the Latin name for the himation (a Greek cloak), and means roughly “play in Greek dress.” All surviving Roman comedies written by Plautus and Terence belong to this genre.
Read More…were translations or adaptations of Greek New Comedy. The name derives from the pallium, the Latin name for the himation (a Greek cloak), and means roughly “play in Greek dress.” All surviving Roman comedies written by Plautus and Terence belong to this genre.
Read More - hamartia
In Greek tragedy the nature of the hero’s flaw is even more elusive. Often the tragic deeds are committed unwittingly, as when Oedipus unknowingly kills his father and marries his own mother. If the deeds are committed knowingly, they are not committed by choice: Orestes is…
Read MoreIn Greek tragedy the nature of the hero’s flaw is even more elusive. Often the tragic deeds are committed unwittingly, as when Oedipus unknowingly kills his father and marries his own mother. If the deeds are committed knowingly, they are not committed by choice: Orestes is…
Read More - lyric
In ancient Greece an early distinction was made between the poetry chanted by a choir of singers (choral lyrics) and the song that expressed the sentiments of a single poet. The latter, the melos, or song proper, had reached a height of technical perfection in “the…
Read MoreIn ancient Greece an early distinction was made between the poetry chanted by a choir of singers (choral lyrics) and the song that expressed the sentiments of a single poet. The latter, the melos, or song proper, had reached a height of technical perfection in “the…
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mythPerforming arts…Western drama, the tragedies of Classical Greece, not only because of the many mythological subjects treated and the plays’ performance at the festival of Dionysus but also because of the playwrights’ mythlike presentation of events and facts. An example of such presentation is the story pattern, notably the way retribution…
Read More…Western drama, the tragedies of Classical Greece, not only because of the many mythological subjects treated and the plays’ performance at the festival of Dionysus but also because of the playwrights’ mythlike presentation of events and facts. An example of such presentation is the story pattern, notably the way retribution…
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mime and pantomime…in the strict sense, a Greek and Roman dramatic entertainment representing scenes from life, often in a ridiculous manner. By extension, the mime and pantomime has come to be in modern times the art of portraying a character or a story solely by means of body movement (as by realistic…
Read More…in the strict sense, a Greek and Roman dramatic entertainment representing scenes from life, often in a ridiculous manner. By extension, the mime and pantomime has come to be in modern times the art of portraying a character or a story solely by means of body movement (as by realistic…
Read More- prologue
The ancient Greek prologos was of wider significance than the modern prologue, effectually taking the place of an explanatory first act. A character, often a deity, appeared on the empty stage to explain events prior to the action of the drama, which consisted mainly of a…
Read MoreThe ancient Greek prologos was of wider significance than the modern prologue, effectually taking the place of an explanatory first act. A character, often a deity, appeared on the empty stage to explain events prior to the action of the drama, which consisted mainly of a…
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ancient Greek civilizationGreek tragedyGreek tragedy was not itself intended as an immediate contribution to political debate, though in its exploration of issues, sometimes by means of rapid question-and-answer dialogue, its debt to rhetoric is obvious (this is particularly true of some plays by Euripides, such as the Phoenician…
Read MoreGreek tragedy was not itself intended as an immediate contribution to political debate, though in its exploration of issues, sometimes by means of rapid question-and-answer dialogue, its debt to rhetoric is obvious (this is particularly true of some plays by Euripides, such as the Phoenician…
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tragedy…describe a specific kind of play, which was presented at festivals in Greece. Sponsored by the local governments, these plays were attended by the entire community, a small admission fee being provided by the state for those who could not afford it themselves. The atmosphere surrounding the performances was more…
Read More…describe a specific kind of play, which was presented at festivals in Greece. Sponsored by the local governments, these plays were attended by the entire community, a small admission fee being provided by the state for those who could not afford it themselves. The atmosphere surrounding the performances was more…
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- theatreGeneral considerations
…way, the most famous of Greek tragedies, Oedipus the King by Sophocles, can be seen as a formalistic representation of human sacrifice. Oedipus becomes a dramatic embodiment of guilt; his blinding and agony are necessary for the good of all Thebes, because it was by killing his father and marrying…
Read More…way, the most famous of Greek tragedies, Oedipus the King by Sophocles, can be seen as a formalistic representation of human sacrifice. Oedipus becomes a dramatic embodiment of guilt; his blinding and agony are necessary for the good of all Thebes, because it was by killing his father and marrying…
Read More - scene shifting
In Greek and Roman theatre the action was performed in front of a conventional backdrop—representing a temple in Greek theatre and houses or a temple in Roman theatre. Changes of scene were indicated by the movement of actors to a different area of the backdrop. Periaktoi,…
Read MoreIn Greek and Roman theatre the action was performed in front of a conventional backdrop—representing a temple in Greek theatre and houses or a temple in Roman theatre. Changes of scene were indicated by the movement of actors to a different area of the backdrop. Periaktoi,…
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epicUses of the epicThe ancient Greek epic exemplifies the cycle of an oral tradition. Originating in the late Mycenaean period, the Greek epic outlasted the downfall of the typically heroic-age culture (c. 1100 bce) and maintained itself through the “Dark Age” to reach a climax in the Homeric poems…
Read MoreThe ancient Greek epic exemplifies the cycle of an oral tradition. Originating in the late Mycenaean period, the Greek epic outlasted the downfall of the typically heroic-age culture (c. 1100 bce) and maintained itself through the “Dark Age” to reach a climax in the Homeric poems…
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folk literatureCultural exchange in written and oral traditions…the usual characteristics of folk literature, such as long repetitions and formulaic expressions, have come so far in their development that they move with ease within a uniform and difficult poetic form, have constructed elaborate and fairly consistent plots and successfully carried them through, and have preserved in definitive form…
Read More…the usual characteristics of folk literature, such as long repetitions and formulaic expressions, have come so far in their development that they move with ease within a uniform and difficult poetic form, have constructed elaborate and fairly consistent plots and successfully carried them through, and have preserved in definitive form…
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Homer…two great epic poems of ancient Greece and Classical antiquity have always been attributed to the shadowy figure of Homer, little is known of him beyond the fact that his was the name attached in antiquity by the Greeks themselves to the poems. That there was an epic poet called…
Read More…two great epic poems of ancient Greece and Classical antiquity have always been attributed to the shadowy figure of Homer, little is known of him beyond the fact that his was the name attached in antiquity by the Greeks themselves to the poems. That there was an epic poet called…
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- rhetoricAncient Greece and Rome
Later, in Athens, these characteristics began to aggregate to themselves some serious intellectual issues.
Read MoreLater, in Athens, these characteristics began to aggregate to themselves some serious intellectual issues.
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Demosthenes…recognized as the greatest of ancient Greek orators, who roused Athens to oppose Philip of Macedon and, later, his son Alexander the Great. His speeches provide valuable information on the political, social, and economic life of 4th-century Athens.
Read More…recognized as the greatest of ancient Greek orators, who roused Athens to oppose Philip of Macedon and, later, his son Alexander the Great. His speeches provide valuable information on the political, social, and economic life of 4th-century Athens.
Read More- Isocrates
…Athens—died 338, Athens) was an ancient Athenian orator, rhetorician, and teacher whose writings are an important historical source on the intellectual and political life of the Athens of his day. The school he founded differed markedly in its aims from the Academy of Plato and numbered among its pupils men…
Read More…Athens—died 338, Athens) was an ancient Athenian orator, rhetorician, and teacher whose writings are an important historical source on the intellectual and political life of the Athens of his day. The school he founded differed markedly in its aims from the Academy of Plato and numbered among its pupils men…
Read More - Libanius
…Antioch, Syria—died 393) was a Greek Sophist and rhetorician whose orations and letters are a major source of information on the political, social, and economic life of Antioch and of the eastern part of the Roman Empire in the 4th century.
Read More…Antioch, Syria—died 393) was a Greek Sophist and rhetorician whose orations and letters are a major source of information on the political, social, and economic life of Antioch and of the eastern part of the Roman Empire in the 4th century.
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ancient EgyptCulture…probably affected by Greek influence, literary and technical works were translated into Greek, and under royal patronage an Egyptian priest named Manetho of Sebennytos wrote an account of the kings of Egypt in Greek. Most striking is the diffusion of the works of the poets and playwrights of classical Greece…
Read More…probably affected by Greek influence, literary and technical works were translated into Greek, and under royal patronage an Egyptian priest named Manetho of Sebennytos wrote an account of the kings of Egypt in Greek. Most striking is the diffusion of the works of the poets and playwrights of classical Greece…
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irrationalismIn ancient Greek culture—which is usually assessed as rationalistic—a Dionysian (i.e., instinctive) strain can be discerned in the works of the poet Pindar, in the dramatists, and even in such philosophers as Pythagoras and Empedocles and in Plato. In early modern philosophy—even during the ascendancy of…
Read MoreIn ancient Greek culture—which is usually assessed as rationalistic—a Dionysian (i.e., instinctive) strain can be discerned in the works of the poet Pindar, in the dramatists, and even in such philosophers as Pythagoras and Empedocles and in Plato. In early modern philosophy—even during the ascendancy of…
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literary criticismAntiquityAlthough almost all of the criticism ever written dates from the 20th century, questions first posed by Plato and Aristotle are still of prime concern, and every critic who has attempted to justify the social value of literature has had to come to terms…
Read MoreAlthough almost all of the criticism ever written dates from the 20th century, questions first posed by Plato and Aristotle are still of prime concern, and every critic who has attempted to justify the social value of literature has had to come to terms…
Read More- history of MesopotamiaThe Seleucid period
…fact that they are in Greek is indicative of interest among local Greek colonists in the culture of their neighbours. Another popular author was Apollodorus of Artemita (a town near Seleucia), who wrote under the Parthians a history of Parthia in Greek as well as other works on geography. Greek…
Read More…fact that they are in Greek is indicative of interest among local Greek colonists in the culture of their neighbours. Another popular author was Apollodorus of Artemita (a town near Seleucia), who wrote under the Parthians a history of Parthia in Greek as well as other works on geography. Greek…
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history of EuropeThe humanities…Classical Latin and, where possible, Greek, which began to be studied again in the West in 1397, when the Greek scholar Manuel Chrysoloras was invited to lecture in Florence. They also insisted upon the study of Classical authors at first hand, banishing the medieval textbooks and compendiums from their schools.…
Read More…Classical Latin and, where possible, Greek, which began to be studied again in the West in 1397, when the Greek scholar Manuel Chrysoloras was invited to lecture in Florence. They also insisted upon the study of Classical authors at first hand, banishing the medieval textbooks and compendiums from their schools.…
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literatureThe scope of literatureThe Greeks thought of history as one of the seven arts, inspired by a goddess, the muse Clio. All of the world’s classic surveys of history can stand as noble examples of the art of literature, but most historical works and studies today are not written…
Read MoreThe Greeks thought of history as one of the seven arts, inspired by a goddess, the muse Clio. All of the world’s classic surveys of history can stand as noble examples of the art of literature, but most historical works and studies today are not written…
Read More- literatureScholarly research
…texts of most of the Greek Classics.
Read More…texts of most of the Greek Classics.
Read More - Western literatureAncient literature
…Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and Egypt, Greek literature has no direct literary ancestry and appears self-originated. Roman writers looked to Greek precept for themes, treatment, and choice of verse and meter. Rome eventually passed the torch on to the early Middle Ages, by which time Greek had been subsumed under a…
Read More…Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and Egypt, Greek literature has no direct literary ancestry and appears self-originated. Roman writers looked to Greek precept for themes, treatment, and choice of verse and meter. Rome eventually passed the torch on to the early Middle Ages, by which time Greek had been subsumed under a…
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- Latin literatureAncient Latin literature
Literature in Latin began as translation from the Greek, a fact that conditioned its development. Latin authors used earlier writers as sources of stock themes and motifs, at their best using their relationship to tradition to produce a new species of originality.…
Read MoreLiterature in Latin began as translation from the Greek, a fact that conditioned its development. Latin authors used earlier writers as sources of stock themes and motifs, at their best using their relationship to tradition to produce a new species of originality.…
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HoraceInfluences, personality, and impact of Horace…of Latin and, more especially, Greek forerunners. The echoes are never slavish or imitative and are very far from precluding originality. For example, in one of his satires Horace wrote what looks at first like a realistic account of a journey made to Brundisium (Brindisi, on Italy’s “heel”) in 37…
Read More…of Latin and, more especially, Greek forerunners. The echoes are never slavish or imitative and are very far from precluding originality. For example, in one of his satires Horace wrote what looks at first like a realistic account of a journey made to Brundisium (Brindisi, on Italy’s “heel”) in 37…
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TacitusStyle and importanceGreek historiography had defined ways of depicting history: one could analyze events in plain terms, set the scene with personalities, or heighten the dramatic appeal of human action. Each method had its technique, and the greater writer could combine elements from all three. The Roman…
Read MoreGreek historiography had defined ways of depicting history: one could analyze events in plain terms, set the scene with personalities, or heighten the dramatic appeal of human action. Each method had its technique, and the greater writer could combine elements from all three. The Roman…
Read More- Terence
…draw their material from earlier Greek comedies about rich young men and the difficulties that attended their amours. The adaptations varied greatly in fidelity, ranging from the creative freedom of Plautus to the literal rendering of Luscius. Although Terence was apparently fairly faithful to his Greek models, Luscius alleged that…
Read More…draw their material from earlier Greek comedies about rich young men and the difficulties that attended their amours. The adaptations varied greatly in fidelity, ranging from the creative freedom of Plautus to the literal rendering of Luscius. Although Terence was apparently fairly faithful to his Greek models, Luscius alleged that…
Read More