echinoderm: References & Edit History
More Articles On This Topic
- circulatory systemEchinodermata
- endocrine systemPhylum Echinodermata
- enterocoelomate
- animal developmentAmphioxus, echinoderms, and amphibians
- integumentEchinoderms
- locomotionBottom locomotion
- muscleEchinoderms
- symmetrySymmetry in animals
- fertilization
- animal reproductive systemEchinoderms and protochordates
- animal reproductive systemProvisions for the developing embryo
- respiratory systemGills of invertebrates
- skeletonCalcareous structures
- skeletonSkeleton of echinoderms
- sexDifferentiation of the sexes
Additional Reading
Richard A. Boolootián (ed.), Physiology of Echinodermata (1966), a comprehensive survey of biology and physiology; Ailsa M. Clark, Starfishes and Related Echinoderms, 3rd ed. (1977), an introductory work, with emphasis on living forms, classification, and biology; Libbie Henrietta Hyman, The Invertebrates, vol. 4, Echinodermata. The Coelomate Bilateria (1955), a classic survey of anatomy and biology; Michel Jangoux and John M. Lawrence (eds.), Echinoderm Nutrition (1982), a thorough survey of feeding biology, and Echinoderm Studies (1983), a collection of review articles on all aspects of echinoderm biology; John M. Lawrence, A Functional Biology of Echinoderms (1987), a discussion of echinoderm food acquisition, reproduction, and other aspects of their lives; Raymond C. Moore and Curt Teichert (eds.), Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, pt. S, T, and U, “Echinodermata” (1966–78), a detailed treatment; David Nichols, Echinoderms, 4th ed. (1969), a general work, including a treatment of fossil forms; and Andrew Smith, Echinoid Palaeobiology (1984), a study of anatomy and paleontology of sea urchins. Vicki Pearse et al., Living Invertebrates (1987), includes a well-illustrated discussion of the living echinoderms. For an exposition at a less advanced level, see Ralph Buchsbaum et al., Animals Without Backbones, 3rd ed. (1987).
Article Contributors
Primary Contributors
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John E. Miller
Chief Curator, Indian River Coastal Zone Museum; Assistant Research Scientist, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, Inc., Ft. Pierce, Florida.
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David Leo Pawson
Senior Research Scientist, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.; former Curator of Echinoderms.
Other Encyclopedia Britannica Contributors
Article History
| Type | Description | Contributor | Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| Add new Web site: Paleontological Research Institution - Digital Atlas of Ancient Life - Echinodermata. | Oct 25, 2026 | ||
| Add new Web site: Biology LibreTexts - Phylum Echinodermata. | Feb 07, 2025 | ||
| Add new Web site: Frontiers - Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology - Regeneration in Echinoderms: Molecular Advancements. | Aug 06, 2024 | ||
| Add new Web site: Cell - Current Biology - Echinoderms. | Jun 28, 2024 | ||
| Add new Web site: Academia - Echinoderms. | May 18, 2024 | ||
| Add new Web site: Pressbooks - A Student�s Guide to Tropical Marine Biology - Echinodermata. | Apr 05, 2024 | ||
| Add new Web site: UEN Digital Pressbooks - Biology and the Citizen - Echinoderms and Chordates. | Feb 09, 2024 | ||
| Add new Web site: University of Central Florida Pressbooks - Phylum Echinodermata. | Dec 20, 2023 | ||
| Add new Web site: MarineBio - Echinoderms. | Oct 27, 2023 | ||
| Add new Web site: OpenStax - Concepts of Biology - Echinoderms and Chordates. | Sep 13, 2023 | ||
| Add new Web site: University of Hawaii - Exploring Our Fluid Earth - Phylum Echinodermata. | Jun 08, 2023 | ||
| Add new Web site: A-Z Animals - Echinoderm. | Apr 13, 2023 | ||
| Add new Web site: National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Current Status of Echinoderm Genome Analysis - What do we Know? | Feb 28, 2023 | ||
| Add new Web site: Smithsonian Ocean - Echinoderms: Sea Stars, Urchins, Sand Dollars, and Relatives. | Jan 19, 2023 | ||
| Added cross-references and converted metric measurements. | Oct 29, 2020 | ||
| Add new Web site: Marine Education Society of Australasia - Echinoderms. | Sep 12, 2016 | ||
| Add new Web site: McGraw-Hill Education - Echinoderms. | Sep 12, 2016 | ||
| Species count changed from 6,000 to 6,500 species; start of the Cambrian Period in geologic time changed to 542 million years ago. | Apr 25, 2012 | ||
| "Fission" replaced by "fragmentation." | Jul 06, 2011 | ||
| Photographs of a sea cucumber (Kolga hyalina), an unnamed High Arctic sea star, and a sunflower starfish (Pycnopodia helianthoides) added. | Apr 30, 2010 | ||
| Added new Web site: How Stuff Works - Animals - Echinoderms. | May 29, 2008 | ||
| Media added. | May 05, 2008 | ||
| Added new Web site: Animal Diversity Web - Echinodermata. | Jul 05, 2007 | ||
| Added new Web site: University of California Museum of Paleontology - Echinodermata. | Jul 05, 2007 | ||
| Added new Web site: BioMedia Associates - Echinoderms. | Jul 05, 2007 | ||
| Added new Web site: Medscape - Echinoderm Envenomation. | Jul 05, 2007 | ||
| Added new Web site: University of California, Berkeley: Museum of Paleontology - Introduction to the Echinodermata. | Jun 27, 2006 | ||
| Article added to new online database. | Jul 20, 1998 |