aphid

aphid, (family Aphididae), any of a group of sap-sucking, soft-bodied insects (order Homoptera) that are about the size of a pinhead, most species of which have a pair of tubelike projections (cornicles) on the abdomen. Aphids can be serious plant pests and may stunt plant growth, produce plant galls, transmit plant virus diseases, and cause the deformation of leaves, buds, and flowers.

Life cycle of aphids

The life cycle of the aphid is complicated. Wingless females, called stem mothers, reproduce without fertilization (i.e., by parthenogenesis) throughout the summer. These stem mothers are unique in that they produce living young (viviparity) as opposed to eggs, as occurs in most other insects. Eventually the plant containing the stem mother and her offspring becomes overcrowded. When this occurs, some offspring develop into adults with two pairs of large membranous wings. These winged adults fly to new plants. In late summer both males and females are produced. After they mate, the female lays eggs that survive the winter. In warm climates there may be no need for an overwintering egg stage, and continuous generations occur. The white woolly-ball appearance of many aphids is the result of wax-gland secretion. Aphids are often controlled by natural enemies such as ladybird beetles, aphidlions, and lacewings. However, when economically or aesthetically damaging numbers are present, they can be controlled by insecticidal soaps, horticultural oils, and other traditional insecticides.

Honeydew production

Ants may guard and care for aphids in return for the honeydew (a sweet excretory product) they produce. Ants protect aphids from weather and natural enemies and transfer them from wilted to healthy plants. In this way the ants ensure their source of honeydew, which they use as food. Ants obtain honeydew by stroking, or “milking,” the aphids. Common types of aphids include the following:

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Types of aphids

More than 4,000 species of aphids have been described, some 250 of which are pests of crops and ornamental plants. The life history, ecology, and agricultural significance of select species are described in the following paragraphs.

The apple aphid (Aphis pomi) is yellow-green with dark head and legs. It overwinters as a black egg on its only host, the apple tree. It produces honeydew that supports growth of a sooty mold.

The cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae) is small and gray-green with a powdery, waxy covering. It is found in clusters on the underside of leaves of cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, and radishes. It overwinters as black eggs in northern regions but has no sexual stage in southern regions. When necessary, it can be controlled with the use of insecticides.

The cooley spruce gall adelgid (Adelges cooleyi) causes formation of conelike galls about 7 cm (3 inches) long on the tips of spruce twigs. In midsummer when the galls open, adults migrate to Douglas firs to lay eggs. However, the life cycle may proceed on either spruce or Douglas fir. Control is by spraying with insecticide, removing galls before aphids emerge, and planting spruce and Douglas fir apart from each other.

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The corn root aphid (Anuraphis maidi radicis) is a serious pest dependent on the cornfield ant. During the winter, the ants store aphid eggs in their nests and in the spring carry the newly hatched aphids to weed roots, transferring them to corn roots when possible. The aphid stunts the growth of corn and causes plants to turn yellow and wilt. Corn root aphids also infest other grasses.

The eastern spruce gall adelgid (Adelges abietis) produces pineapple-shaped galls 1 to 2.5 cm (0.4 to 1 inch) long composed of many cells, each containing about 12 aphid nymphs. The galls open in midsummer, releasing mature aphids that infect the same or another spruce. New galls are green with red or purple lines, whereas old galls are brown. Infested branches often die, but individual trees vary in susceptibility. The eastern spruce gall adelgid is best controlled by spraying.

The greenbug (Toxoptera graminum) is one of the most destructive pests of wheat, oats, and other small grains. It appears as patches of yellow on the plant and may wipe out an entire field. Pale green adults have a dark green stripe down the back. Each female produces between 50 and 60 young per generation, and there are about 20 generations annually. It is controlled by parasites and insecticides.

The green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), also called the spinach aphid, is pale yellow-green with three dark lines on the back. The life cycle involves two hosts. The female reproduces parthenogenetically during summer and produces sexual males and females in autumn. It is a serious pest, transmitting many plant mosaic diseases.

The melon, or cotton, aphid (Aphis gossypii) is green to black. In warm climates live young are produced all year, while in cooler areas there is an egg stage. Among the dozens of possible hosts are melon, cotton, and cucumber. It is usually controlled by naturally occurring parasites and predators.

The pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) has two colour morphs, pale green and pinkish red. It overwinters on clover and alfalfa, migrating to peas in spring. The yellow bean mosaic virus it transmits is often responsible for killing pea plants. Each female produces 50 to 100 young in each of 7 to 20 generations a year. It is controlled by insecticides and weather conditions. It is also susceptible to natural predators such as ladybugs and to parasites such as the acarid Allothrombium pulvinum. The pea aphid’s colour, which is determined by variations in genes that produce carotenoid pigments, may help it evade predators and parasites. Its ability to produce carotenoids is the result of a process known as horizontal gene transfer, in which the pea aphid acquired carotenoid genes from fungi tens of millions of years ago. Carotenoid production has been linked to energy (ATP; adenosine triphosphate) production in pea aphids.

The potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae) begins as black eggs on rose plants, which hatch into pink and green young that feed on rosebuds and leaves. In early spring they migrate to potatoes, which are the summer host. One generation occurs every two to three weeks. It is the carrier of tomato and potato mosaic virus diseases that kill vines and blossoms.

The rose aphid (Macrosiphum rosae) is large and green with black appendages and pink markings. It is common on its only host, the cultivated rose. Natural predators are ladybird larvae and aphidlions (lacewing larvae).

The rosy apple aphid (Dysaphis plantaginea) deforms fruit, producing “aphis apples.” Its feeding activity causes leaves to curl about it, providing some protection from insecticide sprays. The life cycle involves plantain plants as alternate hosts from which the aphid returns to the apple tree to deposit eggs in the fall. It also attacks pear, hawthorn, and mountain ash. It is often controlled by natural enemies, chiefly syrphid flies, lady beetles, lacewings, and parasitic wasps. However, at times insecticides may be necessary.

The woolly apple aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum) lives on roots and may stunt or kill apple trees. White cottony masses enclose the young aphids. It is controlled by parasites.

See also grape phylloxera.