6 mind-altering animals
Humans have used substances to change their mood and senses for thousands of years. Plants are the most common source of these psychoactive (mind-altering) chemicals (see also 9 Mind-Altering Plants). Although some plants are toxic in certain doses, people have learned to use them in quantities and ways that do not make them sick but instead induce feelings such as pleasure, excitement, or even fear. Less familiar than such plant products are the psychoactive substances that come from animals. These chemicals have been used in many cultures for recreational, spiritual, and ritualistic purposes. In some animals, the chemicals are secondary metabolites made by the animals themselves, usually as byproducts of their metabolism, often to ward off predators or fight diseases. In others, the chemicals build up in their bodies through what they eat. These substances may be stored in tissues or appear in bodily fluids, and they can affect humans when inhaled or swallowed. Misuse can be dangerous and sometimes deadly.
This list features six such animals that people have usedâat their own riskâto alter consciousness.
Sea bream
Commonly called salema porgy, the sea bream (Sarpa salpa) is found in the Mediterranean Sea and the eastern Atlantic Ocean. It is called the âdream fishâ or the ânightmare fishâ for its hallucinogenic properties. In Arabic, its name translates to âthe fish that makes dreams.â Historical accounts suggest that ancient Romans may have eaten this fish for its mind-altering effects, and some Polynesian groups are thought to have used it in rituals. Today it is still served as food in parts of the Mediterranean region.
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Most people who eat salema porgy experience no unusual effects. But since the 1990s at least two reported cases of accidental poisoning have led to intensive visual and auditory hallucinations. This reaction is known as ichthyoallyeinotoxism. Symptoms usually begin soon after consumption and last for up to 36 hours. The exact chemicals behind the reaction remain unknown. Some experts point to indole alkaloids, which are chemicals related to the drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), or to dimethyltryptamine (DMT), also found in the South American plant Psychotria viridis, which is used in ayahuasca. Other experts suggest that the fish may gain the toxin from the phytoplankton that grow on Posidonia oceanica, a seagrass that makes up much of salema porgyâs diet.
Reports note that the head of the fish may hold higher levels of the active compounds and that fish caught in autumn may be riskier to eat. Interestingly, however, most reported cases of poisoning are from the spring and summer. And not all fishes caught are toxic, which may explain why hallucinations from consuming salema porgy are rare.
Puffer fish
Puffer fish, or puffers, members of the family Tetraodontidae, are found worldwide. They live mostly in warm and temperate marine waters, but some species also appear in brackish and freshwater habitats. Their skin and internal organs contain tetrodotoxin, a powerful neurotoxin. It blocks sodium channels on nerve cells, disrupting communication between nerves and muscles. This causes numbness and paralysis, with death occurring in about 60 percent of the cases.
Certain puffers, such as the Japanese species Takifugu rubripesâlocally called fuguâare eaten after trained chefs have carefully removed most of the toxin. The remaining trace amounts of the toxin in the carefully prepared dish can produce a mild sense of euphoria and lightness along with tingling in the lips. In Haiti, on the other hand, puffer fish toxin has been used for a very different purpose. It is an ingredient in a âzombie drug,â a mixture used to mimic death in some Vodou practices, reportedly as a means of controlling victims.
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Puffer fish toxin may also be used by nonhuman animals to alter their state. Dolphins have been observed gently handling puffer fish in ways that cause the fish to release small amounts of toxin, which some experts interpret as a possible attempt to experience the toxinâs effects.
Sonoran Desert toad
The Sonoran Desert toad (Incilius alvarius), also called the Colorado River toad and formerly classified as Bufo alvarius, has become the focus of a growing North American retreat industry that offers wellness treatments using the toadâs psychedelic toxins. Native to northern Mexico and parts of the southern United States, this mostly underground species is now farmed in several places for the psychoactive secretions produced by its parotid glands located just behind the eyes. These milky-white secretions, along with those secreted by the glands on the toadâs limbs, contain 5-methoxy-N-N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT), a powerful hallucinogen.
The toxin is harmfulâpotentially lethalâwhen swallowed. When dried and smoked, however, it can produce a brief but intense psychedelic experience that some users describe in spiritual terms. The substance is sometimes called the âGod moleculeâ by those who seek it. Some anthropologists propose that pre-Columbian cultures in Mesoamerica, which existed prior to Spanish exploration and conquest in the 16th century, may have used this toad or its secretions in ritual practices, though evidence remains limited.
Elapid
Venom from elapid snakes, including species such as the Indian cobra (Naja naja) and the common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), affects the body by attaching to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain and disrupting the flow of nerve signals. In small, controlled doses, this venom can produce a brief feeling of euphoria and reduce pain, which has led some users to seek it out as a psychoactive substance. In parts of countries such as India, people reportedly expose themselves to snake bites, sometimes viewing it as a cheaper option than substances such as opium or alcohol. Snake venom may also be injected or processed into a powder and taken with alcohol to strengthen the effect.
Users often describe early symptoms such as dizziness and blurred vision. In some cases, these sensations progress to a period of unconsciousness or deep sleep. After waking up, individuals typically report feeling alert and energetic, and this sensation can last for several weeks. Despite its purported stimulating effects, snake venom continues to be lethal, with more than 80,000 people dying from snake bites globally every year.
Scorpion
In some regions of South Asia, scorpion venom is used as an inexpensive substitute for drugs such as opium and heroin, which may be costly, hard to obtain, or restricted. The venom contains neurotoxins that act on ion channels in nerve cells and can change how neurotransmitters such as serotonin are released. These changes may create a brief sense of pleasure or euphoria.
People use scorpion venom in several ways. Some expose themselves directly to scorpion stings, whereas others smoke the burned remains of the animals. Crushed scorpions are often mixed with tobacco or hashish to increase the overall effect. Individuals who have consumed the venom describe strong pain lasting for six or more hours immediately after exposure, which is followed by visual and auditory hallucinations, a dreamlike mental state, and altered perceptions.
California harvester ant
Found across northern Mexico and the southwestern United States, the California harvester ant (Pogonomyrmex californicus) is known for its powerful sting. It also holds ritual significance for several Indigenous peoples in California. As part of vision quests practiced by certain Indigenous peoples of North and South America to attain supernatural insight, participants would traditionally ingest hundreds of ants enclosed within small balls of eagle down feathers. This practice was believed to help the participant gain a âdream helper,â a lifelong supernatural guide and protector.
Whether the hallucinations reported in these rituals were caused by hallucinogenic compounds in the antsâ venom is debated. Some experts believe that the effects may have been because of the toxicity of the venom and the physical reaction of the body to the antsâ painful stings. The altered mental state may also have been influenced by the broader ritual context. Participants often fasted and purged their bodies beforehand, and some traditions included prolonged use of toloache (jimsonweed; Datura species) and pespibata (a green tobacco powder; Nicotiana species), both of which are psychoactive.