Brush up on anthers, stigmas, florets, and insects with a self- and cross-pollination guide
Some of the different ways plants are pollinated.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
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Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Learn about the transmission of P waves (primary waves), which alternately squeeze and stretch the transmitting medium, causing it to move back and forth in the direction of propagation.
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Created and produced by QA International. © QA International, 2010. All rights reserved. www.qa-international.comThe big-bang theory proposes that the universe expanded from a highly compressed state.
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Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Video showing how roots take up substances from the soil via osmosis, diffusion, and active transport.
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Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Glimpse the varied means through which plants reproduce, from the asexual bramble to the daffodil.
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Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Learn about sea star reproduction by observing the release of eggs and sperm, egg fertilization, and development of zooplankton embryos and larvae.
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Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Insects and flowers have coevolved over millions of years, each deriving benefits from the other
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© MinuteEarth (A Britannica Publishing Partner)Factors that favour the production of more male offspring within human populations, which has resulted in a slightly skewed sex ratio across the species.
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Transcript
NARRATOR: The daffodil is called an entomophilous flower because insects transfer the pollen from one flower to another.
In their quest for food, insects brush against anthers and stigmas, effectively cross-pollinating the flowers. Insects are blissfully unaware of their vital role in the life cycles of the plants they pollinate.
Some flowers, such as these foxgloves, have evolved in parallel with their insect pollinators. The size and shape of the flowers ideally suits the bumblebee. The markings and hairs on the lower petals serve as a landing strip to guide the pollinators straight to the nectaries.
Insects are not the only agents of pollination used by plants. For plants that rely on the wind to carry their pollen, there is no need for insect attractors such as conspicuous flowers, petals, sepals, nectaries, or other temptations. The tiny flowers suspend their anthers and stigmas into the wind to promote cross-pollination.
The pollen grains of anemophilous species are smaller and lighter than those of insect-pollinated flowers. They are also produced in extremely large numbers.
Pollination is an all-important process for most terrestrial plants since it ensures that fertilization will take place and that there will be a new generation of plants.
The dandelion uses a special mechanism to ensure that the correct pollen is transferred to its stigma. The flower head is actually made up of many individual flowers, called florets. The florets are cross-pollinated by insects but can also self-pollinate.
When the florets were growing, the closed stigma of the dandelion flower grew through the middle of the anthers so that pollen was transferred onto the style as it elongated. After a period of time, if cross-pollination has not taken place, the stigma curls back on itself to pick up its own pollen from the style below.
The passionflower has evolved a most interesting method for ensuring cross-pollination. When the flower opens, the anthers flip over. Foraging bees brush against the anthers taking pollen away on their backs. Sometime afterwards, the stigmas descend. Bees who are already carrying pollen from other flowers then transfer pollen to the stigmas as they continue their search for the nectar.
Despite some elaborate mechanisms to prevent it, self-pollination is sometimes unavoidable. But self-pollination doesn't have to mean self-fertilization. Plants can chemically recognize their own pollen and inhibit its further development in favor of pollen from another source.
Flowers such as this tiger lily in which both male and female sex organs are located are called perfect flowers. Where the plant produces separate male and female flowers, the flowers are said to be imperfect.
Here, the male flower is the catkin and is called the staminate flower. The small red flower is the female, or pistillate, flower.
How do completely separate male and female flowers ensure that they are in sync?
Many plants have ensured that cross-pollination takes place by deliberately keeping male and female flowers on the same plant out of sync. In this corn plant, the pollen is ripe long before the stigmas are receptive; therefore, the only way the ovules can be fertilized is by the pollen from another corn plant.
In their quest for food, insects brush against anthers and stigmas, effectively cross-pollinating the flowers. Insects are blissfully unaware of their vital role in the life cycles of the plants they pollinate.
Some flowers, such as these foxgloves, have evolved in parallel with their insect pollinators. The size and shape of the flowers ideally suits the bumblebee. The markings and hairs on the lower petals serve as a landing strip to guide the pollinators straight to the nectaries.
Insects are not the only agents of pollination used by plants. For plants that rely on the wind to carry their pollen, there is no need for insect attractors such as conspicuous flowers, petals, sepals, nectaries, or other temptations. The tiny flowers suspend their anthers and stigmas into the wind to promote cross-pollination.
The pollen grains of anemophilous species are smaller and lighter than those of insect-pollinated flowers. They are also produced in extremely large numbers.
Pollination is an all-important process for most terrestrial plants since it ensures that fertilization will take place and that there will be a new generation of plants.
The dandelion uses a special mechanism to ensure that the correct pollen is transferred to its stigma. The flower head is actually made up of many individual flowers, called florets. The florets are cross-pollinated by insects but can also self-pollinate.
When the florets were growing, the closed stigma of the dandelion flower grew through the middle of the anthers so that pollen was transferred onto the style as it elongated. After a period of time, if cross-pollination has not taken place, the stigma curls back on itself to pick up its own pollen from the style below.
The passionflower has evolved a most interesting method for ensuring cross-pollination. When the flower opens, the anthers flip over. Foraging bees brush against the anthers taking pollen away on their backs. Sometime afterwards, the stigmas descend. Bees who are already carrying pollen from other flowers then transfer pollen to the stigmas as they continue their search for the nectar.
Despite some elaborate mechanisms to prevent it, self-pollination is sometimes unavoidable. But self-pollination doesn't have to mean self-fertilization. Plants can chemically recognize their own pollen and inhibit its further development in favor of pollen from another source.
Flowers such as this tiger lily in which both male and female sex organs are located are called perfect flowers. Where the plant produces separate male and female flowers, the flowers are said to be imperfect.
Here, the male flower is the catkin and is called the staminate flower. The small red flower is the female, or pistillate, flower.
How do completely separate male and female flowers ensure that they are in sync?
Many plants have ensured that cross-pollination takes place by deliberately keeping male and female flowers on the same plant out of sync. In this corn plant, the pollen is ripe long before the stigmas are receptive; therefore, the only way the ovules can be fertilized is by the pollen from another corn plant.
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