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Why did several different Vedanta schools develop from the same sacred texts?

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Seventeenth-century illustration from the Mahabharata showing Krishna, with blue skin, driving a white horse-drawn chariot as Arjuna sits behind him holding a bow.
Indian philosophy In the Bhagavad Gita Arjuna and the Hindu deity Krishna, who also serves as Arjuna's charioteer (as depicted in this 17th-century illustration), engaging in a philosophical dialogue.

The development of multiple Vedanta schools from the same foundational texts—the Upanishads, the Brahma-sutras, and the Bhagavadgita—arises because these scriptures do not offer a single, uniform interpretation of ultimate reality.12

While all Vedanta schools share a commitment to these texts, they diverge significantly in their philosophical conclusions regarding:2

  • The nature of Brahman: Whether the Absolute is an impersonal, non-dual reality or a personal God.12
  • The status of the world: Whether the phenomenal world is an illusion (maya) or a real manifestation of the divine.342
  • The self-Brahman relationship: The degree of identity or difference between the individual self (atman) and the Absolute.12
  • The path to liberation: Whether moksha is achieved through metaphysical knowledge, devotion (bhakti), or the performance of duties.42

Thinkers like Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhva wrote extensive commentaries (bhashya) to substantiate their unique theological and metaphysical positions, leading to diverse traditions ranging from absolute non-dualism to personalistic theism.152