Why did many free medieval European cities eventually fall under monarchical control?

During the Middle Ages, many European cities initially sought autonomy from lordly jurisdiction, often forming self-governing communes to secure their own government and economic interests. However, the eventual shift toward monarchical control was driven by the consolidation of territorial monarchies and the rise of the nation-state.12

As kings evolved from rulers of people into rulers of defined geographic territories, they developed institutional bureaucracies and mass armies that allowed them to manage their societies more effectively, exact higher taxes, and exert greater administrative power. While some cities successfully maintained independence as city-states, many others operated under charters granted by sovereigns, which delegated specific powers for local self-government while retaining ultimate authority for the crown.213

By the early modern period, monarchs—particularly those practicing absolutism—possessed the military and administrative capacity to bypass feudal lords and subjugate independent cities, centralizing political, economic, and spiritual authority within the state.12