Why did copyright enforcement once focus mainly on publishers and other owners of copying equipment?

Historically, copyright enforcement focused on publishers and owners of copying equipment because these entities served as the primary gatekeepers for the reproduction and distribution of creative works. By targeting these centralized points of production—such as printing presses or large-scale manufacturing facilities—rights holders could effectively control the supply of unauthorized copies and protect their intellectual-property law interests.1

This approach was rooted in the origins of copyright, which evolved from royal patent grants that gave specific printers and authors exclusive rights to publish materials. Because the technology required to produce high-quality copies was expensive and specialized, it was relatively easy for authorities to monitor and regulate the few businesses capable of mass production.1

However, the rise of inexpensive personal computers and high-speed Internet access in the late 20th century decentralized this process. As individuals gained the ability to create perfect digital copies and share them via peer-to-peer networks, the focus of enforcement shifted toward service providers like Napster and eventually toward the development of digital rights management (DRM) technology to restrict individual usage.23