Why did Colombia experience frequent civil conflicts during the 1860s and 1870s?

During the 1860s and 1870s, Colombia experienced a period often referred to as the "Epoch of Civil Wars," with conflict occurring in 51 of the 240 months of those two decades. This instability was primarily driven by deep divisions within the country's elite regarding two fundamental issues:12

• Political Structure: There was intense disagreement over whether a centralist or federalist system was the most appropriate arrangement for the nation.12
• Role of the Church: The elite were sharply divided over the appropriate role of the Roman Catholic Church and its clerics in society.12

These tensions were exacerbated by the rise of an anticlerical faction, which led to the expropriation of church lands in 1861 and a 1863 constitution that ended the traditional church and state relationship. Furthermore, underlying class conflicts persisted as 1850s reforms—while rhetorically liberal—often strengthened wealthy landowners at the expense of Indigenous people and peasants. Because the national army was too small to maintain public order, these political and social fractures frequently erupted into open civil conflict.12