Which sources provide evidence about pre-Islamic Arabian religion?

Evidence regarding pre-Islamic Arabian religion is derived from a variety of archaeological, epigraphic, and literary sources.

Archaeological and Epigraphic Data

Primary knowledge rests on archaeological and epigraphic findings from the Arabian Peninsula.1
* Rock Art and Graffiti: Ancient rock drawings depict early cults, while tens of thousands of short, alphabetic rock graffiti provide insights into the names, genealogies, and religious invocations of worshippers.1
* Monumental Inscriptions: These elaborate texts, often found at sedentary sites, detail temple construction, dedications, and military campaigns.1
* Material Culture: Iconographic documents, including statues, reliefs, seals, and coins, offer visual evidence of religious practices. Recent excavations have also recovered private archives written on wooden sticks.1

Literary and Historical Traditions

• Islamic Tradition: Early Muslim annalists and geographers preserved information on ancient folklore and religion. Key texts include Ibn al-Kalbī’s Kitāb al-aṣnām and al-Hamdānī’s al-Iklīl.1
• External Accounts: Scanty evidence exists in the records of neighboring civilizations, including Assyrian royal annals, the Bible, and the works of classical authors like Herodotus and Claudius Ptolemy.1