Which outside cultures influenced the religious traditions of the southeastern Finno-Ugric peoples?

The religious traditions of the southeastern Finno-Ugric peoples, such as the Udmurts and the Cheremis, have been significantly shaped by several outside cultural influences.1

Key influences include:

• Turko-Tatar Influence: These groups were marked by long-standing Turko-Tatar contact. In the 8th century, they came under Bulgar domination, and the subsequent Tatar rule in eastern Russia (1236–1552) introduced and reinforced the Arab-Islamic tradition.1
• Slavic and Orthodox Influence: The Slavic tradition has had a considerable impact on both folk religion and the institutionalized Orthodox faith. While some of this influence was late or superficial, it played a major role in the region.1
• Russian Acculturation: Following the 16th and 17th centuries, these peoples came under the domination of Moscow. This led to ongoing efforts at Christianization, which some groups resisted through syncretic movements, such as the Kugu Sorta cult among the Mari, which synthesized ancient beliefs with Christian elements.12

Despite these external pressures, many pre-Christian practices persisted well into the 20th century, and some individuals remained unbaptized.1