Which groups in ancient Egypt needed to read and write hieroglyphs?

In ancient Egypt, literacy was restricted to a very small segment of the population—likely well under 1 percent—as the complex hieroglyphic script was primarily reserved for monumental and religious purposes rather than everyday use.12

Knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was generally limited to those who required it for their specific professions. These groups included:1

• Officials and Scribes: As the backbone of the Egyptian civil service, scribes were responsible for record-keeping, tax accounting, and managing public works. They underwent specialized training in scribal schools to master reading, writing, and mathematics.32
• Priests: Members of the priesthood needed to be literate to read rituals, hymns, and other sacred texts. In later periods, particularly under Greek and Roman rule, the instruction of hieroglyphs became almost entirely confined to temples, where priests taught the script to their pupils.1
• Craftsmen: Certain artisans required the ability to read and write to perform their work, which included carving inscriptions into stone monuments, painting texts on wood, or creating other decorative inscriptions.14

While hieroglyphs served as a powerful symbol of pharaonic civilization, the vast majority of the population remained nonliterate, and administrative tasks for the general public were often handled through the more convenient hieratic script.52