Which Chinese goods reached the Middle East and Europe during the Yuan dynasty?

During the Yuan dynasty, the Mongol rulers facilitated a period of unprecedented commercial exchange across Eurasia by securing trade routes and standardizing administrative practices. While much of this transcontinental trade was managed by non-Chinese merchants—primarily Persians, Arabs, and Syrians—several key Chinese goods reached markets in the Middle East and Europe.12345

The primary Chinese goods exported during this period included:

• Silk: This remained the preeminent Chinese export commodity, traveling via caravan routes across Asia to reach the Middle East and Europe.45
• Chinese Ceramics: These were exported in significant quantities, with a primary focus on markets in Islamic countries. During the Yuan period, there was also a notable development in the production of blue-and-white ware, which gained popularity in these export markets.453

Although these goods reached distant regions, direct contact between Chinese and European civilizations remained limited, and the trade was largely driven by the connectivity provided by the Pax Mongolica.245