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Which Central Asian kingdoms were important strongholds of Mahayana Buddhism?

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Mahayana Guanyin and attendant bodhisattvas, detail of a painted cave mural, Kansu province, China, early 8th century.

According to historical accounts from travelers who visited the region, the kingdoms of Yarkand and Khotan were identified as significant strongholds of Mahayana Buddhism in Central Asia.1

While other areas in the region, such as Turpan, Shanshan, Kashgar, and Kucha, were noted for having a stronger presence of Hinayana Buddhism, the broader Central Asian landscape served as a vital crossroads for Buddhist culture for many centuries. The Kushan dynasty also played a foundational role in this development; under rulers like Kaniska, the empire was instrumental in the spread of Buddhism into Central Asia and China and was deeply involved in the development of Mahayana doctrine and the Gandhara school of art.12