What types of spirit messages did mediums claim to receive?

In the context of Spiritualism, mediums claimed to receive a variety of messages and communications from the spirit world, which were often investigated to develop theories regarding how such contact occurs. These messages were frequently delivered through the following methods:1

• Automatic Writing (Psychography): Mediums claimed to record the dictations of spirits directly through an automatic writing process.2
• Direct or Independent Voices: Spirits were said to speak either directly through the medium or independently of them during a séance.31
• Telepathic Communication: Some mediums, such as the renowned Brazilian medium Chico Xavier, claimed to receive information through telepathy. Xavier famously produced thousands of books, poems, and letters—including one accepted as evidence in a court of law—which he attributed to spirit communication.4
• Physical Phenomena: Spirits were also said to announce their presence through physical manifestations, such as levitating objects, leaving images on photographic plates, or materializing objects and themselves.15

These practices were central to the movement's goal of demonstrating the survival of the human soul and providing comfort to those grieving the loss of loved ones.1