What source-evaluation principles did Liu Zhiji recommend to historians?

Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.

Historiography Title page of *Histoire de la Nouvelle France* (1609; *History of New France*) by Marc Lescarbot.

In his seminal work, the Shitong (“Historical Perspectives”), Liu Zhiji (661–721) established foundational principles for historical criticism that remain relevant to the discipline today. Rather than accepting records at face value, he advocated for a rigorous, analytical approach to the past.

His recommended principles for evaluating sources include:

Skepticism: Historians should maintain a critical, questioning attitude toward their sources rather than accepting them uncritically.1
Independence of thought: Scholars should exercise freedom from deference to established authorities or traditional interpretations.1
Comprehensive research: Before making any selections or conclusions, a historian must possess extensive knowledge of the available source material.1
Evidentiary support: Any historical argument must be substantiated by extensive and reliable evidence.1

By emphasizing these standards, Liu Zhiji moved beyond the earlier Chinese tradition of simply choosing between conflicting accounts without explanation, instead promoting a more systematic and evidence-based methodology for the writing of history.1