What organizational principles came from military and business management?

In the study of public administration, many organizational principles were adapted from military and private business practices to improve efficiency and formal structure. These principles include:

• Purpose-based organization: Grouping departments, ministries, and agencies according to common or closely related purposes.
• Activity grouping: Organizing like activities into single units.
• Authority and responsibility: Equating an individual's responsibility with their level of authority.
• Unity of command: Ensuring each group of employees reports to only one supervisor.
• Span of control: Limiting the number of subordinates who report to a single supervisor.
• Line and staff differentiation: Distinguishing between line activities (end-purpose or operating tasks) and staff activities (support, advisory, or consultative roles).
• Management by exception: Ensuring only unusual problems or cases are escalated to top management.
• Chain of command: Maintaining a clear, downward flow of command and an upward flow of responsibility.1

While these principles have served as foundational criteria for administrative reform, critics note that their applicability can vary depending on the specific organizational context.1