What kinds of shape-shifting powers were witches believed to have in folklore?

In the context of premodern European folklore and the history of witchcraft, the belief in shape-shifting was a central component of the perceived threat posed by witches. It is important to clarify that these beliefs were largely a product of fantasy, fear, and a persecuting mentality rather than historical reality.1

Witches were widely believed to possess the ability to change their physical form, typically transforming from human to animal or shifting between different human forms. These transformations were often associated with the following concepts:1

• Magical Aids: Some individuals accused of witchcraft claimed to use magical ointments or enchanted objects, such as belts, to facilitate their transformation into animals like wolves.2
• Familiar Spirits: Witches were often thought to keep familiars, which were low-ranking demons given by the Devil. These familiars could assume various animal shapes—such as cats, dogs, toads, or insects—to serve as the witch's attendant.3
• Sabbats: Folklore held that witches could travel through the air to attend secret meetings known as sabbats, where they engaged in diabolical activities.1

These accusations were often used to ostracize or punish rivals and marginalized members of society, with confessions frequently extracted under the duress of torture.21