What factors besides a drug’s chemical properties can shape a person’s experience during a ritual?

Beyond a substance's chemical properties, a person’s experience during a ritual is significantly shaped by their "set" and "setting".1

• Set: This refers to the user's internal psychological state, including their expectations, mood, and level of trust. A person who is anxious or lacks trust is more likely to experience disturbing effects, such as panic or paranoia, whereas a positive, prepared mindset can facilitate feelings of euphoria and connection.1
• Setting: This encompasses the external environment of the session, including physical surroundings and the presence and skill of a leader, such as a shaman or healer. The structure provided by cultic traditions—including how substances are gathered, prepared, and consumed—channels these experiences toward specific spiritual or communal goals.21

Furthermore, the ritual context itself acts as a framework for the experience. Practices such as purification, fasting, or observing taboos before a ceremony can influence the participant's mental state. Ultimately, these rituals transform the drug-taking process into a sacrament, where the environment and tradition help the participant interpret their visions and sensory changes as meaningful encounters with the divine or sacred.34