What criticisms did Judith Butler make of earlier feminist political theories?

In Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (1990), Judith Butler challenged earlier feminist political theories by questioning the stability and validity of the category "women." Butler argued that "women" is an exclusionary construct that only achieves coherence within the "heterosexual matrix"—a system of compulsory heterosexuality that enforces an artificial link between biological sex, gender, and desire.1

By treating "women" as a fixed, universal subject, Butler contended that traditional feminist theories inadvertently reinforced the very structures they sought to dismantle. Consequently, they expressed doubt regarding conventional political activism focused on protecting the rights of this predefined group. Instead, Butler advocated for the subversive destabilization of gender categories through "gender parody," such as drag, to expose the artificiality of gender roles and the arbitrary nature of traditional sex-gender correspondences.1

This approach shifted the focus from identity-based politics to the performative nature of the subject, suggesting that individuals are constituted through repeated acts rather than possessing an innate, pre-existing essence.1