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How were ancient inscriptions carved, stamped, painted, and cast?

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Neo-Assyrian clay tablet from the 7th century BC inscribed with dense cuneiform writing, known as the Flood Tablet from the Epic of Gilgamesh, displayed in the British Museum. — epigraphy The Flood Tablet, 11th cuneiform tablet in a series relating the Gilgamesh epic, from Nineveh, 7th century bce; in the British Museum, London.

In the study of epigraphy, the techniques used to record inscriptions were diverse, often dictated by the material and the intended purpose of the record.1

Carving and Cutting: Monumental inscriptions, intended for enduring display, were typically executed in lasting materials like stone or metal. These were often incised or carved directly into the surface.12
Stamping: Seals, which were carved in intaglio, were used to create impressions on soft materials. Cylinder seals were rolled across wet clay to leave a continuous design, while stamp seals were pressed directly onto clay or wax to authenticate documents, jars, or goods.34
Painting: Inscriptions and decorative elements were also applied via painting. For instance, in the late Classical period, vase painting utilized added colors and gilding, and monumental surfaces were sometimes finished with painted details.15
Casting: Metal objects were frequently inscribed using casting techniques, where the text was incorporated into the mold or embossed onto the surface during the creation of the object.1

These methods allowed ancient civilizations to create both archival records, such as clay tablets inscribed while soft, and monumental displays meant to survive for posterity.13