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How do judges determine the meaning of unclear language in a statute?

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President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Medicare Bill at a table beside former President Harry S. Truman, with Lady Bird Johnson and others standing behind them. — Legislation Former U.S. president Harry S. Truman (right) looking on as U.S. Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Medicare bill at the Harry S. Truman Library and Museum in Independence, Missouri, July 30, 1965.

Judges determine the meaning of unclear statutory language through a technical process of interpretation, aiming to give effect to the legislature's intent. They utilize two primary categories of tools:1

Intrinsic Guides

These involve the statute itself and established judicial rules:1
* Grammar and Syntax: Courts first analyze the words in their context, applying standard rules of language.12
* Canons of Construction: These are established interpretive principles, such as expressio unius est exclusio alterius (the inclusion of specific items implies the exclusion of others) or ejusdem generis (general phrases following specific lists include only items of the same kind).1
* Policy Canons: Courts may apply general guidelines, such as strictly construing statutes that derogate from common law or liberally construing remedial statutes.1

Extrinsic Aids

When the text remains unclear, judges may look beyond the statute to:1
* Related laws and the statute's historical background.1
* Legislative materials, including committee reports, successive bill drafts, and debates.1
* Systematic or teleological interpretation, which considers the provision's role within the broader legal system and the objective the legislature intended to achieve.2

In some instances, to avoid absurd or unjust results, courts may depart from literal wording, essentially establishing a rule based on policy.1