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How do historians use inscriptions alongside literary sources and archaeological evidence?

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Neo-Assyrian clay tablet from the 7th century BC inscribed with dense cuneiform writing, known as the Flood Tablet from the Epic of Gilgamesh, displayed in the British Museum. — epigraphy The Flood Tablet, 11th cuneiform tablet in a series relating the Gilgamesh epic, from Nineveh, 7th century bce; in the British Museum, London.

Historians utilize epigraphy as an essential tool to recover firsthand records of antiquity, often serving as the primary data source when literary evidence is scarce, legendary, or biased. By integrating inscriptions with archaeology and literary sources, historians can reconstruct a more accurate picture of the past.1234

Key ways these sources work together include:

Chronological Anchoring: Inscriptions are often physical objects contemporary with their contents. Historians use them to establish precise dates for events, providing a "check" on the veracity of ancient literary historians like Herodotus.5
Contextual Validation: Archaeological context—such as stratigraphic analysis—helps date monuments, while the style of script (paleography) allows for further chronological refinement.5
Filling Historical Gaps: Inscriptions reveal details about social, administrative, and religious life that literary sources may omit. For example, Linear B tablets provided incontrovertible proof of Mycenaean language and religion, while papyrology has recovered lost literary works.354

Ultimately, epigraphy complements and supplements the literary record, offering a direct, often practical look at the daily operations, legal systems, and cultural beliefs of past civilizations.4