How do historians learn about Viking society despite its limited writing?

Although Viking society was not literate in the modern sense, historians reconstruct their history and culture through a combination of archaeological evidence and later written traditions.1

Archaeological Evidence

Archaeology provides significant insights, particularly through:
* Runestones: Vikings carved runes—their common writing system—onto giant stones to commemorate the dead or record epic deeds. These stones serve as vital historical markers, revealing information about individuals, social structures, and historical events, such as the unification of Denmark by Harald I (Bluetooth).231
* Burial Sites: Excavations of graves, including ship burials, offer clues about social stratification, religious beliefs, and daily life through the worldly belongings buried with the deceased.34
* Material Culture: Discoveries of small images of deities (such as Thor and his hammer) and other artifacts help scholars interpret religious practices and artistic expression.4

Literary and Oral Traditions

Because the Vikings relied on a rich oral tradition, much of their history was later recorded in manuscripts, primarily in Iceland during the 12th to 14th centuries. Key sources include:51
* Sagas and Poems: Works such as the Poetic Edda, Heimskringla, and various family sagas preserve stories of gods, heroes, and ancestral history.51
* Historical Chronicles: Writers like the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus compiled histories of the Danes, drawing upon older traditions and poetry to document the pre-Christian era.5

While these literary sources must be studied with discrimination due to their later composition and potential for fictionalization, they remain essential for understanding the Viking worldview.5