How do federal hate-crime laws differ from state hate-crime laws?

Federal hate-crime laws in the United States differ from many state laws in their scope. While some state laws are broader, the federal law, particularly after the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr., Hate Crimes Prevention Act, allows for the prosecution of hate crimes motivated by disability, gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation, in addition to race, color, religion, or national origin. Earlier federal law was more limited, focusing only on bias against the victim's color, race, religion, or national origin.1

Hate crimes are defined as crimes motivated by hostility towards a victim as a member of a group, based on characteristics such as race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability. These laws have been controversial, with critics arguing they are redundant or create unequal treatment, while defenders assert that hate crimes threaten entire groups and are distinct from other criminal acts.12